Download PDF | Benjamin Arbel, Bernard Hamilton, David Jacoby - Latins and Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204-Routledge (1989).
251 Pages
Preface:
This volume includes twelve of the main papers given at the Joint Meeting of the XXII Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies and of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East held at the University of Nottingham from 26-29 March 1988. The Conference brought together a wide range of scholars and dealt with four main themes: relations between native Greeks and western settlers in the states founded by the Latin conquerors in fonner Byzantine lands in the wake of the Fourth Crusade; the Byzantine successor states at Nicaea, Epirus, and Thessalonica; the influence of the Italian maritime communes on the eastern Mediterranean in the later Middle Ages and the Renaissance; and the impact on Christian societies there of the Mongols and the Ottoman Turks, as well as the perception of Greeks and Latins by other groups in the eastern Mediterranean. The two sponsoring societies reached an agreement with the Mediterranean Historical Review, edited at the School of History of Tel Aviv University, to publish a special issue on the subject.
Authors were requested to submit their papers in article fonn, and the editors suggested certain amendments. In the spelling of Byzantine Greek names of persons and places, we have largely used the familiar Latin equivalents and Anglicized Greek. Less well-known names have simply been transliterated. Restrictions of space precluded the publication in this volume of some excellent communications which were also given at the same conference. Several of these will be published in a forthcoming volume of the MHR.
The Conference received financial support from the British Academy, the Hellenic Foundation, the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, and the British Council and we should like to express our thanks to those sponsors. Our special thanks are also due to the Department of Adult Education of the University of Nottingham, particularly to Sylvia Stephens, for organizing the Conference administration so efficiently. Wann personal acknowledgements are also due to Judith Dekel, from the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University, who prepared the figures for the volume, and to Marva Roth, who undertook the typing with such patience. The editors are particularly grateful to Ann Ussishkin, the assistant editor of the MHR, who accompanied this volume through the entire editorial and production process.
From Byzantium to Latin Romania: Continuity and Change DAVID JACOBY The Fourth Crusade ended in April 1204 with the western or Latin conquest of Constantinople and signalled the beginning of a new era in the history of the Byzantine lands or Romania. Extensive areas of the empire were conquered by western or Latin armies during and shortly after the crusade. Some of these territories were recovered by Byzantium, while others remained for two centuries or more under Latin rule. Such was the case with Attica and Boeotia, most of the Peloponnese or the Morea, as well as Crete, Euboea, and numerous other islands of the Aegean. It is in these areas that the transition from Byzantine to Latin rule and some of its repercussions will be examined, though evidence bearing on other parts of Latin Romania will also be adduced when necessary.l
Military conquest and political upheaval have always attracted the attention of contemporaries, chroniclers sometimes recording these fateful events in minute detail. On the other hand, they were little interested, if at all, in the less conspicuous, almost subterranean flow of daily life expressed in the survival of social structures, legal and administrative institutions, or economic patterns and practices. In the idiom of the modem mass media, continuity never made headlines. It should be noted, however, that once the savagery of battle had subsided, conquerors who intended to settle in their newly acquired lands adopted a pragmatic approach. Irrespective of the new regime they introduced in these lands, they had to deal with some urgent practical matters such as the division of spoils, especially of real estate, and how to ensure their daily livelihood.
Their physical survival as individuals and their collective superiority acquired by conquest were at stake. Their first concern, therefore, was to find ways to tap the resources of their new lands and ensure a smooth flow of revenue to their treasuries. In order to succeed in this endeavour, they had to rely on the administrative and fiscal institutions and practices of the past. In this respect continuity was a matter of both necessity and convenience. All these features appear in Latin Romania after the Fourth Crusade. Yet the Latin occupation implied a complex and much wider encounter between Latins and Byzantine populations, with their respective social structure, institutions, legal and religious traditions, culture and mentality. In order to gauge the effects of the Latin conquest, therefore, we have to determine, as far as possible, the balance between continuity and change in each of these spheres. To be more precise, it is essential to detect the factors that account for varying degrees of continuity in some of them, change and accomodation in others, and a break elsewhere.
Unfortunately, the evidence at our disposal is fragmentary and unevenly distributed both in time and space. It is impossible, therefore, to shed light to the same extent on all the aspects of transition from Byzantine to Latin rule. The most striking and abrupt deviation from the Byzantine past generated by the Latin conquest was of a political nature. To be sure, the empire had begun to disintegrate in the years immediately preceding the Fourth Crusade,2 yet this process was hastened and intensified by the Latin conquest. By 1210 Romania - Latin Romania in particular - was fragmented into numerous political and territorial entities.
The impact of the conquest differed from one territory to another. The spheres, nature, and degree of both continuity and change in each of them largely depended on the combination of three factors: the existence of local or regional features prior to the Latin occupation; the conditions in which the conquest took place; and, finally, the political and social impact of the various groups of conquerors on their respective territories. As we shall see, the initial phase of Latin occupation determined to a large extent the specific long-term development of each of these territories. Let us now briefly consider the three factors just mentioned. Largely seen through the prisma of imperial documentation, the Byzantine empire before 1204 appears to have been more or less uniform in character, in numerous spheres, while in others there was diversity: the existence of specific local or regional features in the twelfthcentury empire is illustrated by later sources, to which we shall return in due course.
As for the conditions in which the conquest occurred, one may point, for instance, to important differences between the Peloponnese and Crete. In the Peloponnese the Latins progressively occupied one area after the other, mostly after reaching accommodation with their respective leaders and only seldom encountering armed resistance. By contrast Crete was conquered by force within a short period and maintained under Venetian rule with the help of military might. The specific encounter between Latins and indigenous population in each of these two territories goes far to explain their diverging social evolution in later years.3
The most important factor in this respect, however, was the composition and character of the conquering elites, the political organization and social structure they established in conquered territories, and the particular conception of authority underlying their institutions. The Peloponnese - save for Venetian Messenia - as well as Attica, Boeotia, and Negroponte, were conquered and subsequently ruled by knights who imposed a feudal superstructure on Byzantine society. The importation of western feudalism implied a marked departure from Byzantine tradition, as it involved the disappearance of the state and the transfer of its authority and prerogatives to private hands. Privatization was one of the most fundamental expressions of the process of feudalization, and had important, long-lasting social implications, to which we shall later return.4
In many Aegean islands the Italian lords instituted what may be called a pseudo-feudal regime: they used feudal terminology and applied rules of feudal law imported from the Morea, which somewhat changed the social stratification of the indigenous population, yet averted the privatization of Byzantine state rights.s By contrast, in Crete and a section of southern Messenia around Coron and Modon there was an almost direct transition from the empire's rule to that of Venice, a city governed by a non-feudal elite imbued with a firm sense of statehood. In these Venetian territories, therefore, the measure of continuity was likely to be much greater than in feudalized areas. Indeed, although using the feudal vocabulary, Venice upheld the supreme authority of the state and prevented any definitive privatization of Byzantine imperial prerogatives in judicial or fiscal matters.
Venice also inherited state lands, their peasantry, as well as state prerogatives, and established a highly centralized bureaucratic system of government and supervision.6 In sum, it is obvious that whatever the regime established by the conquering leaders in their respective territories, the indigenous societies were affected by their submission to Latin rule. Social mobility in their midst was no more governed by the social and institutional forces at play in the empire; it was arrested by the conquest and henceforth largely depended upon Latin acquiesence. Around 1200, at the time of the conquest, the differences between Byzantine and western societies were rather striking.7
In Byzantine society all free men enjoyed equal legal status and were justiciable in imperial courts according to the same Byzantine law, regardless of their social and economic standing or the imperial privileges they held. Such was also the case with members of the social elite. Byzantine society thus lacked formal legal stratification. In the western provinces, as elsewhere in the empire, the social elite included rich landlords, imperial officials, and imperial dignitaries, all known as archontes. Occasionally the great landlords enhanced their prestige and social ascendancy by acquiring governmental functions or honorary titles in the imperial hierarchy. Some archontes developed in their own interest a network of personal bonds, yet these always retained their private nature and were never recognized by law or sanctioned by custom.
These bonds were thus basically different from western vassalage. The chiefs of Slav groups settled in the Peloponnese, such as the Melings of Mount Taygetus, were also considered archontes after receiving imperial titles that strengthened their traditional authority and status. In the western provinces the breakdown of imperial supervision shortly before 1204 enabled some archontes to usurp imperial land and exercise state prerogatives in military, fiscal, and judicial matters. The Latin conquest deprived them of these short-lived benefits. Somewhat exceptional in Byzantine society and law was the status of the paroikos or dependent peasant. Paradoxically he was considered free, though subject to some important personal restrictions and tied to the state or to his lord by links of dependence of a legal nature.8
Yet this did not imply the existence in the empire of an overall rigid social and legal stratification, such as found in the feudal West in the same period. Nor did the imperial grant of a paroikos to an individual or an ecclesiastical institution involve a definitive alienation of state prerogatives or the replacement of imperial by private jurisdiction. The issue of state prerogative around 1200 requires some elaboration with regard to the pronoia. The pronoia was an imperial concession of fiscal revenues to an individual, often in return for military service. The peasants from whom the holder of the pronoia collected these revenues and the imperial land they cultivated were generally transferred to the grantee for his lifetime.
It has been claimed that the pronoia was similar to the western fief; moreover, that it was the basis of the Byzantine military system and constituted a major factor in the so-called feudalization of the empire, which allegedly led to its downfall; finally that the similarity between pronoia and fief supposedly explains the easy adaptation of the conquering Latin knights to local Byzantine conditions. However, neither Byzantine and Latin sources around the time of the conquest, nor later sources yield a single conclusive piece of evidence about the pronoia or about pronoia holders in the conquered territories we are dealing with. Several factors may explain the absence of such evidence. The paucity of Byzantine sources bearing in this area should be taken into account; the diffusion of the pronoia in the western provinces may have been more limited than elsewhere in the empire; or the pronoia existing before 1204 may have been assimilated to patrimonial estates and registered as such when imperial supervision collapsed shortly before 1204.
Whatever the case, in this period the pronoia was definitely not the dominant form of landed property in the empire, nor the backbone of its military forces. It was basically a fiscal grant and did not entail the transfer of imperial prerogatives such as taxation and jurisdiction to individuals. Moreover, fundamental differences existed between the Byzantine pronoia and the western fief with regard to inheritance, the exercise of jurisdiction, as well as social, political, and military functions within Byzantium and western Europe, respectively. In short, the use of 'feudalization' in the Byzantine context, whether or not in connection with the pronoia, appears to be inappropriate, is misleading and may therefore be safely rejected.9 In contrast to Byzantine society, society in the areas of the West from which the conquerors originated was highly stratified around 1200.
With the exception of the major Italian cities, including Venice, there was a clear-cut distinction between noblemen, burgesses,and dependent peasants. Each class was governed by its own set oflaws, and social status was virtually synonymous with legal status, both being hereditary. Social promotion involving the crossing of class boundaries was mainly restricted to the lower strata of society. Access to the nobility was severely hampered by the development of class-consciousness within the ranks of the feudatories, illustrated by specific rituals such as the ceremony of dubbing, as well as by a particular social ethos, lifestyle, and group mentality. It is not surprising, therefore, that the French and Italian knights settling in continental Greece and some of the Aegean islands brought with them various institutions such as vassalage - bonds of a private nature constituting the foundation of their political and social hierarchy - as well as attitudes and values common to the feudal upper class in the West in the early thirteenth century. In conformity with their own concepts and traditions, the Latin leaders distinguished, as in the West, between noblemen and non-nobles within their own society.lO It was, however, the extension of their socio-legal stratification to the indigenous population that generated the most important changes in the social fabric of their new lands. As a result of the conquest, society in Latin Romania was divided into two distinct groups.
One of these included the Latin conquerors, the western immigrants of all ranks who joined them, and their descendants; the other group comprised the indigenous Greeks, as well as Slavs in the Peloponnese. The scale of penalties to be inflicted upon those who aided Greek rebels in Crete, according to a Venetian resolution of 1273, provides a vivid expression of stratification within the Latin society and of the social cleavage separating the latter from the Greek community. Help extended to Greek rebels was to be severely punished: Latin feudatories were threatened with the loss of their military tenements, other Latins with the loss of non-feudal assets, in addition to exile or imprisonment, while Greeks were to incur physical punishment by losing a hand and a foot. 11 Religious affiliation did not constitute an important factor in daily life, yet it became a basic criterion of social stratification and individual status; moreover, it provided a convenient means of group identification. Those who recognized the authority of the Roman Church were freemen; Latinus was synonymous with Francus, a word that acquired both an ethnic and a social connotation, as it meant 'westerner' as well as 'free'. On the other hand, the Greeks and Slavs, who remained faithful to the Byzantine Church, were relegated to the rank of villani, villeins or dependent persons, regardless of their status prior to the Latin conquest. Only few of them escaped this process of debasement and levelling. Among those who remained free we find the archontes: by their wealth, social ascendancy, life-style, and the fiscal exemptions some of them enjoyed at the time of the conquest, they markedly differed from the rest of the local population, like the Latin elite in the West.
Freedom was also enjoyed by some other men and women of lesser standing, as well as by emancipated villeins and slaves. It thus appears that the Latins translated the social realities they found in Romania into legal terms and ascribed the socio-legal stratification to which they were accustomed to the relatively 'open' Byzantine society, in which social mobility was more pronounced than in the West. As a result, the archontes encountered at the time of the conquest and their descendants became a closed socio-legal class enjoying hereditary status and privileges. The distinction between them and the villeins was recognized both in the feudal law of the Morea and neighbouring feudalized areas, as well as in Venetian courts. Unless an archon had sufficient proof of his status, he faced debasement: such was the case with Theodoros Makrembolites, who fled from Constantinople in 1204 and became a paroikos or dependent person in COrfu. 12
In Venetian Crete freedom was so exceptional among Greeks in rural areas that the free Greeks who were not archontes sometimes specified their status in documents, and emancipated villeins who lost the privilege granting them enfranchisement reverted to their former unfree status.13 The Latin conquest displaced the local elite from its dominant social position. After openly or secretly resisting the Latins for some time, several archontes fled from the Morea and Negroponte, while others left Crete by agreement, like the 20 archontes who in 1213 joined Duke Marco I Sanudo and settled on his island of Naxos. Some of the remaining archontes were dispossessed: others who submitted to the Latins without struggle or returned to their land and co-operated with them retained most or all of their landed property. 14 In short, the fate of the archontes under Latin rule greatly varied, yet in none of the conquered territories did it imply a complete break with the past. Indeed, in some fields there was continuity, while in others the accommodation between conquerors and local archontes gradually grew in scope in the course of the thirteenth century. As already mentioned, Latin and Greek leaders concluded agreements in several areas of the Morea.ls These agreements at first led to the inclusion of archontes within the group of non-noble Latin feudatories. Since the mid-thirteenth century, however, some archontes achieved further social promotion: they were dubbed to knighthood and joined the ranks of the Latin or Frankish nobility. This process of social integration was also related to land holding.
The Latin leaders confirmed the rights of the archontes to their patrimonial estates and dependent peasants, who were governed as before the conquest according to Byzantine law. In addition, the Latin leaders granted some archontes fiefs similar to those enjoyed by Latin feudatories, in return for military service. These and other archontes also held administrative positions entailing economic benefits. Social and economic interests thus prompted Greeks to seek integration within the Latin elite. On the other hand, the absence of qualified administrative personnel familiar with the Byzantine tradition and the lack of sufficient military forces account for the attitude of the princes and barons of Frankish Morea: they gradually loosened the rigid system of social and legal stratification initially devised by the conquerors. It is hardly surprising that the integration of the archontes and other Greeks proceeded after the return of the Byzantine forces to the Peloponnese in 1262: it was then imperative for the Frankish leaders to ensure the services and full co-operation of these Greeks. Following the death of Prince William II of Villehardouin in 1278, the principality was governed by bailiffs on behalf of Charles I of Anjou and his successor Charles II, kings of Sicily, until Isabelle of Villehardouin and her husband Florent of Hainault took up residence there in 1289.
During these 11 troubled years there was warfare between Frankish and imperial forces, and some archontes in the principality entertained hopes of a speedy Byzantine reconquest of the entire Peloponnese. These archontes requested imperial charters granting or confirming patrimonial estates and fiscal exemptions that would go into effect once the grantees came under Byzantine rule. 16 Yet the Byzantine expansion was slow to proceed and was halted for extended periods of time at several occasions. 17 Most archontes, while fully aware of this fact, anyhow believed that their interests coincided with those of their Latin lords. Their integration within the Latin elite enhanced their pOSItiOn with regard to their Latin peers and, in addition, strengthened their power and social ascendancy within their own Greek community. Intermarriage between members of the Latin and Greek elites, however, seems to have been rare, save for political purposes at the princely level. By the fourteenth century integrated Greeks displayed an eagerness to further their assimilation to the Latin elite in yet other ways.
Some of them may have adhered to the Latin Church, although most Greeks remained faithful to the Orthodox creed and ritual. Of a more general nature was the strong identification of many archontes and other Greeks with the values, attitudes, and class-consciousness of the Latin feudatories. It is for them that an anonymous Greek author, relying on a French work, composed the fourteenth-century Greek version of the Chronicle of Morea, an epic exalting the Latin conquest and the Latin leaders of the Morea. Yet the acculturation of the Greek upper group to the Latin elite was never fully achieved, save perhaps in very few cases: thus, for instance, by 1350 Nicholas Misito was among the most influential men of Frankish Morea, and by 1377 his son John II was among the mightiest, which supposes a firm integration within the upper stratum of the nobility. As for the overwhelming majority of Greek feudatories, they also were undoubtedly bilingual, yet the composition of the Greek version of the Chronicle of Morea illustrates their preference for a Greek work suited to their own literary tradition and taste. Although subdued, Greek religious and social group consciousness come to the fore in several passages of the Greek version. In short, there was no fusion between the Latin and Greek elites, and both groups preserved their distinctive identity.18
A process of integration also occurred in Venetian Crete, yet it was neither progressive nor generalized as in the Morea, nor did it imply large scale identification with Venetian attitudes and values. It took place in stages as a response to the numerous Greek rebellions led by archontes that shook one or several areas of the island in the thirteenth century, and remained limited in extent. Venetian rule in Crete, as in the Morea, was based on extensive confiscations of land previously held by the state, the Greek Church and a number of archontes; on the existence of a permanent garrison composed of Venetian and other Latin settlers rendering military service in return for the property they held from the state; and, finally, on a strong, highly centralized administration. All these elements generated strong resentment within the Greek popUlation, especially among its leaders.
In the Byzantine period most Cretan archontes had presumably resided on their rural estates in the midst of their followers and dependents, where we find them after the conquest. It is not impossible, however, that some archontes were compelled to abandon the cities along the northern coast of Crete, which the Venetians wanted to tum into military strongholds by populating them with Latins. In order to conciliate the leading archontes, Venice followed a policy similar to the one adopted by the Latin lords in the Morea. She acknowledged their property rights on their large estates; in addition she granted them and some of their followers military tenements and thereby assimilated these Greeks to the Latin holders of such property. This move, initiated in 1219, enhanced the social standing of the leading archontes, all the more so as some of them were able to obtain the emancipation of a number of paroikoi or villeins held by Latin masters or the Venetian state and improve the lot of others who remained under Latin rule. Their ascendancy over the peasantry is further illustrated by the fact that numerous villeins joined them during their rebellions. In 1299 Venice went so far as to recognize the validity of the sentences pronounced by Alexius Kallergis and the judges he had appointed during his long revolt, which lasted from about 1282 until 1299. Alexius was also allowed to receive voluntary payments and services from Greeks, other than those living on his lands. It follows that, throughout the thirteenth century, social networks headed by some powerful Cretan archontes survived alongside the social and legal networks built and recognized by Venice. They rested on the exercise of independent judicial authority and the perpetuation of Byzantine legal, as well as fiscal institutions and practices.19
The nature, extent, and rhythm of the cumulative process of accomodation with the archontes in the Morea was not only different from that occurring in Crete; it also affected the Greek society of these territories in different ways. The more generalized, continuous, and profound integration of the archontes in the Morea deprived the local Greek population of an elite willing to provide active support to the Greek Church in its opposition to Latin rule, and to favour the Byzantine expansion in the Peloponnese initiated in 1262.20 By contrast, the slow pace at which Venice rallied the leading Cretan archontes to her cause, as well as the latter's power, prestige, and large estates account for the alliance of many archontes with the Greek Church. On the whole Venice remained suspicious of the Cretan archontes, in spite of agreements concluded with several of them. She therefore implemented a policy of social segregation in order to prevent intermarriage between members of the Latin and Greek elites. Only exceptionally was the ban on mixed marriages lifted, as in 1272 and 1299, in the latter case in favour of Alexius Kallergis and his followers. Yet the number of such marriages seems to have remained small, and the offspring of mixed parentage were mostly children of Latin fathers and Greek women of equal or lower rank, many of them illegitimate. It thus appears that the holding of military tenures did not lead to the social integration of the archontes within the Latin elite of Crete, save in few instances. The Latin feudatories strongly opposed the participation of the Greeks in their assemblies, which functioned in an advisory capacity within the Venetian governmental system of Crete.
One of the issues closely connected with the ban on intennarriage at this social level was the detennination of Venice to prevent, as far as possible, the transfer of military and other land to Greeks, and this policy was upheld well into the fourteenth century. It is noteworthy that Venice extended institutionalized segregation to the middle and lower ranks of society in Crete. The coexistence of Latins and Greeks in urban centres, the pursuit of identical or similar economic activities, in addition to daily social and economic intercourse, threatened to erode the distinctive character of the Latin community, especially since in the Venetian colonies there was no link between occupation and social status as in feudalized areas. Venice nevertheless could not entirely prevent mixed marriages. Some Latin notaries and craftsmen are known to have wedded Greek women in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth century, and intennarriage undoubtedly increased as time passed. Venice acted vigorously in the 1360s and 1370s to prevent peasant women from escaping villeinage by marrying Latins.21
The social evolution examined so far has revealed that the Latins' compromise with members of the Greek elite secured the survival of Byzantine institutions and practices within the framework of the Greek community. Continuity in varying degrees was to be found in landholding, jurisdiction, law, taxation, and administration. The perpetuation of the Byzantine heritage in these closely related fields was not limited, however, to the pattern of relations between the archontes and other Greeks. It also extended at various levels to Greeks subjected to Latin lords and even to Latins among themselves and, therefore, affected the entire social and economic fabric of Latin Romania. We have seen that one of the main concerns of the Latin conquerors was to establish their rule on solid economic foundations. However, having no knowledge of the language in which Byzantine documents were couched, nor any familiarity with the intricate Byzantine fiscal system and its operation, they depended at the outset on those among the indigenous population who were willing to provide them with infonnation and services needed for the partition of the land and the levy of taxes. The Latins indeed enlisted the help of local Greek leaders and fonner members of the imperial bureaucracy.
It has been rightly suggested that in April or May 1204 the leaders of the Fourth q Crusade relied on imperial cadastral registers and other fiscal documents found in Constantinople when they divided the Byzantine empire.22 The Chronicle of Morea reports that in the Peloponnese the Frankish leaders consulted such records with the assistance of local archontes, who may have been rich landlords, former officers in charge of the imperial administration, or former military commanders. Although not explicitly stated, such collaboration also occurred in other territories of Latin Romania. In 1211 Ravano dalle Carceri, lord of the island of Negroponte, promised to maintain his Greek subjects in the status they had enjoyed under Manuel I Comnenus. This implied the continuity of landholding, as well as that of the Byzantine agrarian, legal, and fiscal regime.23 In Crete the Venetian authorities gathered oral evidence and evidently also used cadastral registers, before taking hold of former imperial estates and confiscating the property of archontes and ecclesiastical institutions. Such was also the case in Venetian Messenia, where some land was attributed by the state to Venetian settlers.24 As in the empire, there were always individuals, including peasants, willing to provide information about landholding, taxation, and the personal status of others.25
In 1312 the Great Council of Venice ordered the Venetian governors serving in Messenia to undertake a general anagraffi, or survey for fiscal purposes, in the territories of Coron and Modon where it had not been carried out for a long time. The use of the Byzantine technical term anagraphi was coupled with the injunction that 'not a single person should be omitted'. At the same occasion it was also stated that 'aecording to the custom of the empire, the survey used to be carried out at the beginning of [a] thirty-year [period],.26 Thirty-year periodic surveys are indeed attested in the empire prior to the Fourth Crusade, and the injunction of 1312 indicates that this procedure had somehow survived under Venetian rule during the thirteenth century. In Messenia the data collected by the surveyors was listed in official registers called catastica, like the Byzantine katasticha or cadastral registers of the same type compiled and preserved by the imperial fisc. These registers were updated periodically by state officers, or occasionally following land transactions at the request of individuals. In the Byzantine registers each entry, called stichos, or 'line', corresponded to a fiscal unit and as a rule recorded the names of the responsible taxpayer and the members of his family; their comrrion stasis, consisting of land, animals, other means of production, and houses; and, finally, the nature and amount of the taxes, dues and labour services they owed to the state, whether individually or collectively as members of a community comprising a whole village or part of one. State taxes, dues, and services were occasionally awarded by the emperor, partly or entirely, to an individual or a collective beneficiary such as a monastery.27 In Venetian Messenia the same registration practices are implied by the survey ordered in 1312, the use of the terms catastica and stico (from the Greek stichos), the updating of the fiscal entries attested at several occasions, as well as by the functions of the veterani or gerontes, village elders who dealt with, and provided evidence on fiscal matters. Yet no cadastral registers covering this region have survived. The transmission of Byzantine practices and the involvement of Greeks in this process are also illustrated by the fact that the data was recorded in Greek for more than a century after the Latin conquest. Eventually, in 1318, the Venetian Great Council ordered the governors in Messenia to translate their registers into Latin, yet the Byzantine terminology remained in use.28 It also survived in Venetian Crete, where the term catasticum was applied to various registers listing land holdings, as well as their borders, surface, and content, including dependent peasants.29 A parallel, though somewhat different development took place in the principality of the Morea, the feudalized part of the Peloponnese. The princely register, written in French and enumerating the fiefs, their holders and the services they owed, was compiled for the first time in 1209 and later updated; it was to be accessible to the Frankish leaders, their vassals and officers, and was occasionally used in the princely court. 3D We may safely assume that similar registers existed in the baronial courts. Yet at the level of local and manorial administration, conditions were different. An intimate knowledge of the Greek language and the complex Byzantine fiscal idiom was imperative. The co-operation of the archontes and native Greek-speaking bureaucracy, already mentioned, was not limited to the initial phase of Latin rule. It continued well into the second half of the fourteenth century and we find Greeks, at times several members of the same family, at all the levels of the princely, baronial and manorial administration, from the highest offices to those of simple scribes. In 1287 one Vassilopoulos appears as protovestiarius, the officer in charge of the wardrobe or privy purse of the prince. The Greek knight Stephanus Cutrullus or Koutroules and Johannes Murmurus or Mourmoures, who belonged to a family of Greek officers in the Morea, served in the same capacity in 1336 and 1337, respectively. The use of the Greek term for the office, rather than a western equivalent, is most significant. The protovestiarius handed out fiefs on behalf of the prince, controlled their content and revenue, and sold the produce of the princely estates. Nikolakos of Patras, who in 1319 or 1320 was governor of the castle of St George in Skorta, presumably also dealt with fiscal matters.31 These Greek officers were obviously bilingual. As in Venetian Messenia, the participation of Greeks in the administration, the supply of evidence and the collection of taxes in the Morea were closely related to the survival of Byzantine practices and the drafting of documents in Greek in this area. Twelve surveys or reports bearing on feudal estates, compiled between 1336 and 1379, provide important evidence in this respect.32 While lacking uniformity, these documents use the same registration techniques and are similar in content and disposition to contemporary Byzantine praktika, or are based on such documents. The praktika were fiscal inventories of specific estates copied from the imperial cadastral registers, or compiled on location and later transcribed in such registers.33 The striking kinship of the fourteenth-century Byzantine, Moreot, and Venetian surveys points to their common twelfth-century Byzantine models. Significantly, one of the Moreot surveys, compiled in 1337, explicitly refers 'to the praktikon written in Greek script' (practico in greca scriptura scripto) drafted by Johannes Murmurus.34 Some Latins may also have compiled surveys in Greek. Nicola de Boiano, a south Italian officer, was sent in 1360 by Empress Mary of Bourbon to report on her Moreot estates. While referring to several villages Nicola de Boiano wrote at one point: '1 have compiled the inventories in Greek' (0 facti Ii inventarii in greco).3S The continuous involvement of Greek officers in the drafting of Greek praktika is also attested for the thirteenth century in the island of Cephalonia and in the region of Athens. The inventory listing the properties and income of the Latin dielcese of Cephalonia was confirmed by Count Riccardo Orsini in 1264.36 It must have updated an earlier praktikon, the prototype of which was compiled prior to the Latin conquest. As for the praktikon referring to the region of Athens, it was copied in a thirteenth-century hand in a codex, and not on a roll as was then customary in Byzantine practice, a fact that seems to point to its execution for a Latin chancery. This hypothesis is further enhanced by the consecutive Latin numbers appearing on the two surviving folios of this survey.37 There is no evidence to suggest that in feudal Morea there was a definitive switch from Greek to Latin or western idioms in fiscal surveys, similar to the one attested for Venetian Messenia. The use of Greek continued at the registration level and the transcription of surveys into Latin characters must have been made only when required by the Italian fief-holders, mostly absentee landlords, who wanted a detailed account of their feudal revenues. The replacement of Greek by Latin or the Venetian dialect in Venetian Messenia and presumably also in Crete, where it may have occurred even earlier than 1318, is easily explained. At its highest level, the centralized Venetian colonial administration was manned by officers sent from Venice who remained overseas for short periods only, generally two years or somewhat less. 38 Upon their return to the metropolis, these officers had to provide detailed financial reports. The adoption of western languages in the local administration was to enable them direct access to the records and a first-hand knowledge of their content. The original Greek data collected in Latin Romania is abundantly reflected in the Latin and Italian transcriptions in which they have survived. In the Morea, for instance, a western scribe recorded in 1357 a peasant having a filius ypomasius or 'nursing son'. He failed to translate into Latin the word hypomazios and mistook it for a proper name.39 The transcription of a Greek Moreot survey into a barbarous mixture of Latin and south Italian dialect, executed in 1354, produced some amusing blunders. The bilingual Greek scribe obviously recorded the data by dictation and ascribed to the Latin letter b the phonetic value of the medieval Greek beta, which was then pronounced v. As a result, vacca or cow became in his text bacca, vassal us appears as bassalus, virum as birum, and the Neapolitan da novu, 'recently', as da nobu. Other oddities resulted from the literal or phonetic transcription of Greek words: thus baltos, 'swamp', became both balto and vauldo in the same survey of 1354.40 At times Byzantine terms are hardly recognizable when transcribed into Latin or another western language: thus aerikon appears in the guise of aricum, zeugaratikion as socaraticum, and kapnikon as capinicho. 41 In Crete practically all technical terms referring to vine-growing were of Greek origin,42 and this vocabulary was shared elsewhere in Latin Romania by Latin landholders and Greek peasants. The administrative idiom and the documents drafted by Latin notaries were thus heavily tainted by spoken Greek and by Byzantine terms, especially when dealing with rural taxation and landholding. The use of the Greek language and Byzantine administrative practices, as well as the presence of Greeks in the bureaucracy of Latin Romania were closely related to a much wider phenomenon of continuity, namely the survival of imperial taxation. Byzantine commercial and maritime dues are attested in feudalized areas as well as in Venetian territories. Shortly after 1209 or 1210 Geoffrey I of Villehardouin, prince of Morea, granted the sum of 400 hyperpyra on the revenue derived from the commerchium or kommerkion of Corinth as a money-fief to his vassal Othon of La Roche.43 This commerchium was presumably a custom due levied on imports and exports as in the empire. It appears again in Corinth as chomerchio grande in 1365, when the collection of this tax was farmed out' according to custom' to some Jews.44 The chomerchio of the market, a sales tax, and those imposed on the shoemakers, the butchers, and others mentioned in this connection were most likely also of Byzantine origin.4S The messetarius, like the Byzantine mesites, was an official broker supervising commercial deals and collecting the taxes imposed upon them. In the Venetian colonies the messetarius regularly reported to the local officium commerchi et messetarie, recorded in 1310 in Crete, which kept a detailed record of commercial transactions and collected the revenue gathered by the messetarii. 46 The jus Jigni or limena, identical to the Byzantine limeniatikon, was a tax on ships anchoring in harbours. It is recorded in 1338 and 1354 for the port of Navarino, situated on the eastern coast of Frankish Messenia, when part of its revenue was held as money-fief by Niccolo Acciaiuoli.47 The survival of Byzantine commercial and maritime taxes was not synonymous with strict continuity in fiscal matters. The rate of taxes did not necessarily remain unchanged under Latin rule, nor was their levy always handled in the same way as before 1204; moreover, the destination of these taxes varied. In this last respect it is essential to emphasize a fundamental difference between Venetian and feudalized territories. The collection of taxes in the former was generally entrusted to the state bureaucracy, as in the empire. The office of messetarius may have been the exception to this rule, as it was farmed out by auction for short periods. Yet in Venetian lands taxation remained, as in the Byzantine era, an exclusive prerogative of the state, even if temporarily granted to an individual.48 On the other hand, in feudalized areas former imperial state taxes were privatized and their revenue flowed to the treasuries of feudal lords, regardless of the way in which they were gathered. As we have seen, these lords occasionally farmed out the collection oftaxes to individuals or groups and granted income, whether entirely or partly, as money-fiefs to their vassals. In the field of taxation, continuity was obviously more pronounced under Venetian rule. Fiscal continuity, with the limitations and variations just mentioned, is also illustrated by the taxes imposed on the peasantry. These are attested by numerous sources and especially the fourteenth-century cadastral surveys of Frankish Morea. It would be tedious to consider each of them separately,49 yet not in all cases was there absolute continuity. The adherence to the Byzantine inheritance in matters of taxation and the way some of it was handled are revealed by the treatment of the dependent peasants who were ordained priests. In 1219 the Latin Church reached an agreement about the fiscal obligations of these priests with Venice and the lay lords of the Latin empire. This settlement, also adopted for the kingdom of Thessalonica, was partly extended in 1223 to the principality of Morea and the duchy of Athens. All village priests, their families and servants were to be exempted from labour services, exactions and special dues once owed to the state, while paying to their lords the acrosticum or akrostichon, a tax imposed on their fiscal unit, at the rate applied during the reign of Alexius III Angelus (1195-1204); in addition they were liable to the taxes imposed by their Latin lords. A limited number of these priests, however, were granted total exemption, save for the acrosticum: two in villages comprising twenty-five to seventy hearths, four in somewhat larger villages, and so on.50 These provisions recall those issued in 1144 by Emperor Manuel I Commenus, first in favour of the rural priests who were demosiarioi paroikoi, or paroikoi established on state land and submitted to the imperial fisc, then to village priests living on the estates of private landlords and ecclesiastical institutions, and possibly to all rural priests. The priests were exempted from extraordinary taxes and exactions, which may have included labour, army, and fleet services to the state or payments replacing them. Yet in order to limit the loss of imperial revenue, Manuel I restricted the number of demosiarioi paroikoi enjoying the exemptions to those who were specifically registered as being entitled to them. Patriarch Luke Chrysoberges (1157-1169) claimed in 1168 that the imperial fisc had compelled village priests on state land in excess of the permitted number to perform public services. The emperor agreed that the matter should be considered by the patriarchal synod, which advocated a general exemption for all the priests who were demosiarioi paroikoi. Emperor Manuel's final decision is not known.51 At any rate, the agreements of 1219 and 1223 seem to have relied on the Byzantine regulations. On the one hand they extended certain exemptions to all village priests; on the other, they ensured the limitation of the number of exempted priests in each village, regardless of its lord, in the spirit of Emperor Manuel's legislation. The first provision satisfied the Latin Church, while the second safeguarded the interests of the lay lords. The most important conclusion to be drawn from the whole issue is that the Latins had obtained from Greek informants precise evidence on Byzantine taxes and ensured the latter's continuity as a matter of convenience, while adapting them or innovating whenever it suited their own conceptions or interests. A similar picture emerges from the evolution of the zovadego in Venetian Messenia.52 This tax, called zovaticum in Latin, was obviously identical to the Byzantine zeugaratikion paid in wheat or in cash by peasants holding land and owning oxen. Under Venetian rule the zovadego was originally collected in the area of Modon only, yet not in the neighbouring district of Coron. In 1384, however, the Venetian authorities extended this tax to peasants who held land but no plough animals. Two years later it was the tum of the state peasants in the district to be taxed. In 1414 the tax was further extended to landless peasants. Contrary to Byzantine practice, it was then paid in wheat only, except when the state officers collected overdue payments. The specific developments connected with the zovadego enable us to draw some further conclusions about the lack of uniformity in Byzantine taxation. Continuity and change in fiscal matters in Messenia were not restricted to the zovadego. They also extended to labour services imposed on state paroikoi, those in the area of Modon owing 13 days a year and those in the district of Coron 12 only.53 One might argue, of course, that the discrepancies between the two districts, each of which had its own castellanus, were due to the Venetian authorities who imported the zovadego from their possessions in northern Italy. Had this been the case, however, one would expect the Venetians to have introduced the new tax simultaneously in both closely connected districts, and not only in one of them. It is most likely, therefore, that after the conquest Venice found the zeugaratikion, a Byzantine tax similar in nature to the zovadego, and applied to it the term customary in some areas of northern Italy. We may thus assume that the different rates of taxation applied in each of the districts originated in the period preceding the Fourth Crusade. This would indicate that, contrary to a widely held view, there was no fiscal uniformity in the empire, even within the boundaries of a single horion, or large district, such as that of Patras-Modon covering the western Peloponnese.54 It is noteworthy that the zeugaratikion does not appear in all the Byzantine praktika and was therefore not necessarily levied throughout the empire. More to the point in our context, the case of the zovadego clearly proves that local or regional features existing prior to 1204 were perpetuated for more than a century under Latin rule. The imposition of this tax on categories of peasants previously exempted from it and the emphasis on its payment in kind reflect the specific needs of the Venetian authorities in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, and the subtle combination of continuity, adaption, and innovation. The Latin conquerors developed and adapted their legal traditions in Romania in accordance with their specific needs and mentality, relying on judicial precedents, borrowings, and legislation.55 They imposed their own criminal law immediately after the conquest. In other fields, however, the transition from Byzantine to Latin rule generated more complex developments. The perpetuation of Byzantine administrative and fiscal practices was necessarily related to the survival and implementation of Byzantine law, with which the Latins likewise became acquainted. 56 It is highly significant that in all the territories of Latin Romania the conquerors incorporated this law in their own legal system, the nature and range of this move differing according to their specific political and social regime. Jurisdiction being one of the foremost expressions of political power and authority, it was inevitable that the survival of Byzantine law should be constantly challenged and its application restricted by Latin inroads into its realm. We are fortunate to have a first-rate source of Moreot law: the Assizes of Romania, a private legal treatise, the final version of which was compiled between 1333 and 1346.57 This treatise reveals that Byzantine private law survived in the feudal principality in numerous fields. With the exception of feudal estates, it was applied to land held by Greeks, which was transmitted by equal partible inheritance, regardless of the heirs' social status or gender. This rule was equally valid for patrimonial estates owned by the Moreot archontes and plots of land belonging to the staseis or fiscal units of the paroikoi. It contradicted the feudal practice of primogeniture and the precedence of male over female governing the inheritance of fiefs, including those granted to archontes. 58 The Assizes of Romania also prove that land exploitation was regulated by Byzantine law. Thus the contract of hemiseia or hemisophyteusia, attested in feudal Morea as well as in Venetian Crete and Messenia, provided for the division into equal parts of newly planted trees and vines between the landlord and the peasant responsible for their cultivation. It should be noted that this and other agricultural contracts were drafted according to Byzantine models even when they involved Latin farmers tilling small plots of land.59 In this field, then, Byzantine law definitely maintained a strong standing. Other sources bearing on the personal status and obligations of the Greek peasantry in Latin Romania also point to the survival of Byzantine law and enable us to fill numerous gaps in our knowledge of the pre-1204 empire.60 This is not to say that Byzantine law enjoyed a quasi-monopoly in the realm of rural landholding and exploitation or with regard to the status of the Greek peasantry. As indicated by the Assizes of Romania, in feudalized areas Frankish law dealt with vassalic relations, fiefs, Latin burgesses and their economic activities, yet also with Greek archontes or peasants and their land, in addition to jurisdiction, fiscal rights, and economic prerogatives exercised by the state prior to 1204 and taken over by landlords after the conquest.61 Paradoxically, the privatization of the state's authority benefitted not only the Latin feudal lords, but also the Greek archontes. Under Latin rule, the latter could fully implement Byzantine law on their estates without any state limitation or supervision. It follows that feudal custom and Byzantine law cohabited in various fields. This, however, did not imply the existence of clear, stable, and definitive boundaries between the two legal systems in feudalized areas. The struggle between them may be illustrated here by a specific issue: the status of the patrimonial estates owned by the Greek archontes in the Morea. In the thirties and forties of the fourteenth century the Latin feudatories, especially those of lower rank, seem to have resented what they perceived as a preferential treatment of their Greek peers, whose patrimonial land was exempted from the restrictive rules of primogeniture governing the inheritance of fiefs and in many cases also from military service. The feudatories therefore urged the imposition of these rules. Although not documented for an earlier period, their claim was presumably first voiced in the second half of the thirteenth century, when the number of Greek fief-holders rapidly increased, and was expressed more forcefully when archontes began to join the ranks of the knights. It is impossible to ascertain whether these feudatories eventually imposed their view.62 Whatever the case, the whole issue is indicative of the growing pressures exerted against the application of Byzantine law and the possible limitations of the fields in which it survived. The developments in Venetian colonial territories were different, largely because the basic conception of political authority underlying Venice's legal system was similar to that of the empire. For the Venetians - as for the Byzantines - the state enjoyed a monopoly in the exercise of jurisdiction, especially criminal jurisdiction, and Venetian law was enforced whenever state rights and prerogatives were at stake.63 In addition, Venice like the empire upheld the principle that state interests took precedence over private interests. As a result, Venice applied Byzantine law in a wide range of fields after integrating it into her own legal system, yet only as long as it was compatible with her interests. Venetian law of this type covered primarily state land and peasants settled on it, whether directly held by the state, granted as military holding or temporarily leased, yet also covered lordless land and peasants, as well as peasants submitted to the archontes. As a result, there was no room for the privatization of jurisdiction as applied in feudalized territories. Nevertheless, there was an area in which Byzantine jurisdiction and law survived in entirety: the socio-spatial networks headed by the archontes. The authority wielded by the archontes within these boundaries may have been even more extensive than in the Byzantine era as there was little state interference, save in criminal matters. Moreover, in periods of upheaval, rebellious archontes and the judges they appointed exercised unrestricted jurisdiction in the territories they controlled. The operation of Byzantine law within these same networks was further enhanced by the tendency of Greeks to have recourse to their own, rather than to Latin notaries, especially when they wished to conceal from their lords or the state private transactions or avoid the expenses involved in official registration.64 As these contracts were not recognized by Venetian courts, conflicts between the parties concerned bolstered the influence of archontal jurisdiction. Continuity in such closely related fields as administration, taxation, landholding, law, and jurisdiction does not necessarily imply that the effects of the Latin conquest on the peasantry were limited to the replacement of a number of Greek by Latin landlords, nor that the Byzantine rural world remained practically unchanged. The survival of Byzantine terminology and institutions is somewhat deceptive, and we would fail to understand its overall implications after 1204 unless we examine the empire's inheritance in the countryside within the specific political, social, and legal context of Latin Romania. The interaction between Byzantine and western legal and fiscal traditions is particularly obvious with regard to the paroikoi, called villani or rustici in Latin Romania. The eleventh- and twelfth-century evidence on the condition of the Byzantine paroikoi is rather meagre when compared with that available for the conquered territories. It is impossible, therefore, to determine whether all the legal restrictions enforced after 1204 on the paroikos and the exercise of his property rights derived from Byzantine practice. It should be stressed that by the twelfth century the Byzantine paroikos was still considered legally free. He thus enjoyed a status different from that of the slave, although his status was also permanent and hereditary. There were, however, some legal and practical factors limiting his freedom, and the subjection to his lord (an individual, an ecclesiastical institution, or the state) had become very tight. Various sources vividly convey the perceptions of contemporaries with respect to the condition of the paroikos. In a letter written between 1097 and 1104, Theophylactus of Bulgaria complained about one of his paroikoi 'aspiring to more liberty and desirous to shed the yoke of his paroikia': the issue of freedom was thus paramount to both sides. About two centuries later, around 1228, a pronoia holder of Thessaly used force against a paroikos who had refused to obey his orders and accidentally killed him. He thereafter submitted to ecclesiastical penance for his crime, yet there is no evidence that he was prosecuted by an imperial court.6S In contrast to the Byzantine paroikos, the villanus of Latin Romania was unfree: his legal and social demotion was a feature common to areas with such different regimes as Venetian Crete, feudalized Morea and Negroponte. While this development constituted a break with the past, there were some Byzantine features that survived. In the twelfth-century empire, the dependent peasantry was divided into two groups: demosiarioi paroikoi, or paroikoi of the state, and paroikoi of individuals or ecclesiastical institutions. The same two groups are to be found among the paroikoi or villani of Venetian Crete and Messenia. In these territories Venice succeeded to the Byzantine state and maintained strict supervision over the movement and distribution of the dependent peasantry, a subject to which we shall soon return. The villani of the state, however, seem to have enjoyed slightly better conditions than their peers submitted to individuals or to ecclesiastical institutions. The state control over individual peasants could not be as rigorous as that of other landlords, who resided on their estates or visited them regularly; on the other hand, it is true that state control was not limited by territorial boundaries. State villeins had access to public courts and they were more likely, under certain circumstances, to be freed from residential restriction, benefit from tax exemptions or be emancipated. The evolution in feudalized areas was different. The removal of imperial supervision and the disappearance of imperial public courts opened the way to the privatization of fonner state paroikoi, and to a stronger subordination of the peasants to their lords, regardless of whether these were Latins or Greeks. There still remains an unsolved problem: what happened to the free Byzantine peasants who, according to some scholars, were still to be found shortly before the Latin conquest? The Venetians may have assimilated them to the state paroikoi. At any rate, there is hardly any trace of free peasants in the thirteenth century Venetian colonies, save for a few individuals, and there seems to have been none in feudalized areas.66 The different conceptions of the ruling Latin elites with regard to the nature of political authority also affected the fiscal obligations of the peasantry, which closely reflected the latter's social and legal status. In Crete and southern Messenia, Venice strictly maintained the distinction between private and public taxes and services, in confonnity with Byzantine usage. Indeed, in these territories, occupied by Venice shortly after the collapse of imperial rule, the peasants' individual or collective obligations towards the state were never assimilated to those discharged to landlords, although some state taxes and labour services were pennanently ceded to holders of military tenements or temporarily only to individuals leasing state land.67 In the territories of Coron and Modon the transportation of lime and other building material, the supply of grass and straw to the Venetian governors, and the service aboard Venetian warships clearly originated in the period preceding the Fourth Crusade. It should be noted that maritime service also persisted in areas such as Tenos and Myconos that went through a period of limited feudalization before being annexed by Venice in the course of the fourteenth century, as well as in Rhodes under the rule of the Hospitallers.68 In spite of pronounced differences between their respective political and social regimes, the territories of Latin Romania shared a large number of legal and fiscal rules and procedures governing the status of the dependent peasant. Some of these, which were inherited from the twelfth-century empire, are unrecorded in extant Byzantine sources. Thus, for instance, the process by which a peasant became the paroikos of a specific landlord in the empire is revealed only by later sources from Venetian Crete, feudal Morea, and Negroponte. The subjection of the paroikos seems to have become binding one year after his settlement on the land of his lord, and hereditary after a period of thirty years during which the peasant and his descendants fulfilled their fiscal and manorial obligations. This thirty-year prescription was obviously connected with a similar prescription regarding land held by paroikoi. 69 In the empire the paroikos who did not pay any taxes, was not subjected to a specific landlord or the state, nor registered as paroikos was known as anagraphos, 'non-inscribed', xenos, 'foreigner', or eleutheros, 'free', while in Latin Romania his counterpart became an extraneus or 'foreigner'. Yet their so-called freedom did not entail any change in their legal status, as it was temporary and lasted only until they were reintegrated within the ranks of the paroikoi or villani. Fugitives could be claimed by their lords or the state, respectively, and when caught, were forcibly returned to the estate from which they had escaped if their lord or the state wished so. In Venetian territories lordless villani belonged to the state, while in feudalized areas these villani became subjected to feudal lords or archontes. Except for this privatization, Latin Romania thus followed Byzantine precedents with regard to the eleutheroi or extranei. 70 There is yet another Byzantine rule documented by later Latin sources only, which should be mentioned here. The issue when peasants attained legal majority entailing fiscal responsibility was raised on several occasions in Venetian Crete. Two thirteenth-century references to paroikoi or villeins in this island point to sixteen as the age of majority' according to the custom of this land' , or Byzantine custom.71 This rule, which has been overlooked. is of particular importance: it may enable us to assess with greater precision than in the past the reliability of the demographic data listed in the cadastral surveys of the empire and Frankish Morea, and improve thereby our quantitative interpretation of this evidence.72 Continuity was also obvious in the social fabric of the Greek peasantry. The use of names and surnames, the kinship patterns. and the structure and size of families and households within the Greek peasantry of the Morea bear a strong affinity with those appearing in fourteenth-century Byzantium. As revealed by the Moreot sources of this period, there were striking variations between neighbouring areas, villages, and even portions of the same villages held by different landlords with respect to the relative, fluctuating number of vertically extended, laterally extended, or nuclear families. On the whole, the kinship patterns reflect the existence of relatively stable families and households in villages shielded from warfare for long periods oftime.73 Nuclear families, however, seem to predominate, especially in newly resettled areas along common borders with the empire.74 Extensive migration due to various factors was facilitated by the political fragmentation of Latin Romania.7s The evidence on the Cretan peasantry does not enable us to arrive at a quantitative evaluation of migration, as for fourteenth-century Morea.76 Yet we may safely assume that on the island the frequent revolts of the thirteenth century and their repression had a destabilizing effect on the peasantry in specific areas. Migration mainly occurred within the island, the escape to other territories being more difficult than in continental Greece.77 Occasionally the sources, especially those of Venetian Messenia, offer a glimpse of the functions of the village community operating as a fiscal entity and as a social body defending its collective rights against the landlord or the state. Here again the affinity with the empire is striking.78 The village elders, known as gerontes, protogerontes, homines seniores, homines antiqui, anciani, or veterani, provided information to surveyors on landholding and taxation, carried out surveys of land boundaries when ordered to do so, presented the peasants when an inquest was made, and were responsible for the collection of certain taxes and their transfer to the landlord, or to the state as in Venetian Messenia. They were involved in legal matters, whether in an advisory capacity or as court agents. They also convened their fellow peasants and represented their interests when necessary. In short, they served as intermediaries between the villeins and the landlord or the state. The gerontes were most likely rich peasants who inherited their particular social standing within the village community. In Venetian Messenia the governors annually entrusted a number of them with specific administrative responsibilities.79 Latin rule ensured the supremacy of the Roman Church in the conquered territories and generated important changes in the life and organization of the Greek Church.80 Our main concern here is with the social implications of these changes, rather than with their reflection in the ecclesiastical body. To be sure, the Latins promised at several occasions to maintain the Greek Church and its religious practice, yet it was forcefully subjected to papal authority and supervision, gradually stripped of its higher ranks, and weakened by large scale confiscations of its property and income. The Latin conquest of Constantinople severely diminished the prospects of reconciliation between the Latin and Greek churches, and the aggressive propaganda of the Dominicans and Franciscans further antagonized the Greeks. Following a short period of demoralization in the aftermath of the conquest, Greek priests and monks engaged in passive resistance to Latin domination. Some of them went even further and actively co-operated with the Greeks of Epirus and those of Nicaea, yet without notable effects. Latin political and ecclesiastical domination were interwoven and this was especially true in Venetian territories. Considering the Latin Church an instrument of government, Venice repeatedly interfered in ecclesiastical appointments, exerting a strong control on the activities of both Latin and Greek ecclesiastical bodies, and preventing the Latin Church from taking any action she considered as dangerous to peace and stability within her territories.81 Neither Venice nor the feudal lords were eager to encourage the adhesion of Greeks to the Latin Church, especially on a large scale by villeins. Such a move would have disrupted the existing social order, since members of the Roman Church were considered freemen.82 It is obvious, therefore, why a change in the status of the villeins was strongly opposed by their lords. The number of Greeks joining the Roman Church in any case remained small,83 a fact that was closely related to the evolution of the Greek Church under Latin rule. The evolution of the Greek Church was in a way paradoxical. Despite the blows suffered, it displayed a remarkable vitality at the popular level, especially in rural areas where papates or priests and monks lived among the Greek laymen and shared their fate. As already noted, most papates were villeins.84 In Crete, moreover, the Greek Church enjoyed the constant support of the archontes who, as before the conquest, exercised rights of patronage entailing economic benefits over monasteries and churches and repeatedly intervened on behalf of these institutions or individual monks and priests, as illustrated by their treaties with the Venetian government. In 1299 Alexius Kallergis even received permission to negotiate with the Roman Church in order to ensure the consecration of a Greek bishop in Crete. Such a prelate is mentioned in 1331 at Milopotamo.8s The attitudes within the Greek community are well reflected in the writings of Marino Sanudo, an acute Venetian observer of Latin Romania. Around 1330, more than a century after the imposition of Latin rule, he described the situation in Cyprus, Rhodes, the Morea, Euboea, Crete, and other Aegean islands in the following terms: 'Although these places are subjected to the rule of the Franks and obedient to the Roman Church, almost all the popUlation is Greek and is inclined toward this sect [namely, the Greek Church], and their hearts are turned toward Greek matters, and when they can show this freely, they do so. ,86 Indeed, the Greek Church acted as a cultural focus and played a major role in the crystallization of a new Greek collective identity, in which religious and ethnic responses to Latin rule merged, and which had long-term effects, especially in Venetian territories. Occasionally it manifested itself openly, as noted by Marino Sanudo. In the fifteenth century the influx of Greek clergymen from Byzantine territories aroused religious and social unrest on several occasions. 87 More indicative perhaps of the permanent mood within the Greek community in this period are two dedicatory inscriptions painted in 1436 and 1445 respectively, and displayed in two small Cretan churches commissioned by priests.88 Both inscriptions mention Emperor John VIII Palaeologus in their dating and thus clearly proclaim the Byzantine allegiance of the Greek clergy, undoubtedly shared by the majority of Greek laymen. These Cretan inscriptions sharply contrast with those found in thirteenth- and early fourteenth-century archontic churches in the Morea and Negroponte, which bear no reference to emperors.89 The evolution of the Greek Church and its determinant role in the shaping of new attitudes were also fostered by the weak standing of the Latin Church in the conquered territories.90 Most Latins were settled in urban centres along the Greek coasts. Elsewhere Latin laymen were scattered and lived in small communities established in inland cities and rural areas. Such was also the case with Latin monks, who remained few in number and on the whole failed to expand in Latin Greece.91 Under these circumstances, massive investments in ecclesiastical buildings were neither necessary nor possible. In the thirteenth and first half of the fourteenth century the Latins were mostly content with the enlargement and embellishment of existing Greek churches and monasteries, and built only few new churches.92 One of the main functions assigned to the Roman Church in the conquered territories was the promotion and preservation of Latin solidarity and collective identity, especially important in the midst of a much more numerous and occasionally hostile Greek population. The Roman Church, however, was severely weakened by the lack of priests in sufficient numbers, especially inland, and the absenteeism of the higher clergy. As it was unable to supply ecclesiastical services to many small, scattered Latin communities, growing numbers of Latins turned to Greek priests and monks, received sacraments according to the Greek rite, and mingled with Greek laymen at religious services. Such a case occurred in Melos during a five-year vacancy in the local Latin church, which ended in 1253 when Pope Innocent IV responded to the appeal of the Latin population of the island and appointed a new bishop. In the thirteenth century there must have been similar cases elsewhere. Religious symbiosis in Latin Romania is better documented for the following two centuries. Although limited in scope and largely restricted to common worship, this symbiosis, in addition to intermarriage, daily social and economic intercourse between Greeks and Latins, and a growing knowledge of Greek among the latter, generated some degree of hellenization that worried the papacy, the Latin lay lords, and the Venetian government. They feared the assimilation of the Latins to their Greek neighbours, and took various measures to prevent this process, such as institutionalized ethnic segregation in Crete.93 All these phenomena, however, did not blur the distinctive identity of the Latin and Greek communities, which pursued their separate existence. The economic evolution of the western provinces of the empire between the twelfth and the fourteenth century was also marked by continuity, adaptation, and change. In the twelfth century the economy of this region was largely shaped by a set of interconnected factors. 94 Land was the main source of income, wealth, and taxation, large estates constituting the major element in this context. Local archontes, to whom many of these estates belonged, played a dominant role in both the rural and urban economy. Their attitudes and interests were largely responsible for the slow development of a market economy supported by manufacture and trade in some urban centres, and by extra-regional trade largely oriented towards Constantinople. Let us now briefly examine these factors. Large estates owned or held by the imperial fisc, members of the imperial and other prominent families as well as by ecclesiastical institutions of the capital, local archontes, churches and monasteries, are well attested for the period of the conquest.9S There is no direct evidence about the structure, management, or profitability of these estates. However, from Byzantine sources referring to other provinces of the empire and later evidence bearing on Latin Romania we may gather that they usually consisted of small peasant holdings directly exploited by paroikoi, and of demesne land cultivated with the help of compulsory labour services provided by paroikoi or slaves, joined by a salaried labour force (misthioi) and by peasants leasing small scattered tracts of land from rich landlords.96 These estates raised livestock and mainly produced wheat, olive oil, wine, various fruits, wool, and raw silk. From the writings of Michael Choniates, self-exiled archbishop of Athens, it would seem that the countryside of Attica and neighbouring areas were severely suffering from desertion, neglect by absentee landlords, attacks by pirates, and above all fiscal oppression by greedy and corrupt tax-collectors.97 It is likely, however, that this picture is somewhat biased and mainly reflects the evils besetting ecclesiastical estates; at best it is valid for specific small areas only. In the twelfth century the empire enjoyed demographic stability and a flourishing agriculture. More specifically, most archontes were presumably not defenceless like ecclesiastical institutions when it came to taxation. This was particularly the case with powerful archontes, who often held positions in the administrative or military hierarchy of the empire.
These archontes must have enjoyed substantial revenues accruing from their estates, their urban property, and their official functions or dignities.98 These revenues go far to explain the power they wielded and their ability to offer protection to, and muster extensive support within the local Greek population. At the time of the conquest, power and social standing, rather than economic development, were at the top of the archontes' priorities and were closely related to their ideal of selfsufficiency.99 We may therefore assume that they were willing to go to considerable expense in order to obtain and maintain a following, as well as to acquire and display status symbols. On the other hand, it is most unlikely that they should have heavily invested or innovated in their estates, while monasteries were more willing to do so as they were not concerned about social standing. The development of an increasingly market-oriented economy in continental Greece in the course of the twelfth century hardly affected the attitudes of lay landlords with regard to land use, management, or marketing.
The same holds true, it seems, of ecclesiastical institutions, which for different reasons strove to achieve self-sufficiency, a goal that could be all the more easily attained when a monastery held land in different areas, as St John of Patmos did on that island and in Crete. 1OO The growth of manufacture in the eleventh and twelfth centuries mainly occurred in the framework of numerous small, scattered workshops, and this was also the case with the silk and glass industries. The concentration of craftsmen remained limited to few specific urban centres, primarily Corinth, Thebes, and Sparta.101 In continental Greece local archontes were the dominant element in the urban economy. Their estates supplied agricultural commodities and industrial raw materials, the most important of which was raw silk. They owned shops and dwellings in the cities, controlled local manufacturing to some extent, and occasionally provided capital for commercial ventures. 102 Yet, on the other hand, their involvement in urban life seriously hampered the development of a sizeable mercantile group, free trade, and a full-fledged market economy.
These archontes generally lived in cities fairly close to their estates, which presumably ensured their own supply and that of many of their urban followers and dependents. Moreover, archontes and monasteries often delivered the surplus of their estates directly to regional fairs and consumer markets, and in rather exceptional cases to large distant markets, primarily Constantinople, by using their own agents and ships rather than independent intermediaries.103 We may safely assume that to some extent the agents overseeing the estates of Constantinopolitan owners acted similarly and also shipped some of their merchandise directly to the capital. It is within this extra-regional trade pattern, largely geared towards Constantinople, the main emporium of the empire, that Venetian traders expanded their operations since the second half of the eleventh century; they were followed by other Latins. The range and consequences of their intrusion into the Byzantine market have been grossly overestimated.104 Venetian traders were primarily attracted to western Greece and Crete by agricultural produce and some luxury items, such as raw silk and silken cloth, which they seem to have often purchased from local archontes.
Their exemption from Byzantine taxation, as well as their combination of innovative commercial techniques, trade, and shipping, gave them a definite edge over Byzantine competitors. At first they operated between the western provinces and Constantinople, but very soon they took advantage of their simultaneous links with the empire and particularly its capital, Alexandria, and Venice, and from the last quarter of the eleventh century they shipped grain, oil, Cretan cheese, and precious wares to these destinations. 105 In the twelfth century, Venetian and other Italian traders appear to have gradually replaced the Byzantines on the maritime route linking Constantinople with Alexandria. The impact of the Italians' activity on the Byzantine economy and on urban life in the western provinces seems to have been restricted to specific localities enjoying a modest infusion of western capital, a growth in popUlation, and a boom in construction. 106
The volume of capital, shipping tonnage, and manpower invested by the Latins in Romania was still small, compared with what it became in the second half of the thirteenth century. It was limited by the heavy Italian involvement in trade with Egypt and the crusader Levant and, more generally, by a negative balance of trade with the East. 107 In sum, the western provinces fulfilled a marginal role within the framework of the empire's economy, and this role was not basically altered by twelfthcentury developments. The following century witnessed important changes in the economy of the region that came under Latin rule, generated by the dismantling of the Byzantine empire in the wake of the Fourth Crusade, amplified by long-lasting demographic, social, and economic processes in the West, and shaped by factors specific to Latin Romania. As a result, this vast area was entirely drawn into the economic orbit of the West, and its orientation markedly changed. 108 To be sure, land remained the main factor of its economy, the rural infrastructure was hardly affected by the conquest, and the patterns of agricultural production on the whole persisted.
This continuity is attested by the survival of Byzantine administrative, fiscal, and legal institutions and practices, by the structure of the large Moreot estates described in the fourteenthcentury surveys, save for a few innovations discussed below, and by numerous agricultural contracts dealing with the cultivation of small plots of land and the raising of livestock. 109 In the aftermath of the conquest, however, there were some major changes in agricultural management, production, and marketing. As a result of expropriation, most land was transferred from Greek to Latin landlords.
This shift severely curtailed the share of the archontes and the Greek monasteries in the rural economy as well as their impact on cities and trade. More importantly, it established a new pattern of interaction between these three factors. In varying degrees, though definitely more than their predecessors, the Latin landlords were aware of the economic benefits resulting from co-operation with an expanding group of traders and craftsmen, which after the conquest comprised numerous Latins established in cities involved in maritime trade.llo This awareness was shared by the conquering knights, who highly valued investments in social standing, and by Latin burgesses, particularly Italians.
All these new settlers originated in areas of the West experiencing by 1200 an ever stronger interaction between the rural world and a developed urban economy.1ll It is hardly surprising that after a short period the Greek archontes should also have adopted the approach of their Latin peers. We have seen that before the conquest archontes and ecclesiastical landlords were the main source of liquid capital, albeit in small amounts. The strictly localized infusions of additional capital provided by Latin traders did not basically alter the nature of the Byzantine economy, although it foreshadowed later developments. The conquest, however, broke the strong hold of the landlords on the financing of economic activities and abolished the last restrictive barriers of Byzantine state control. It thus enabled the free flow of cash between various sectors of the economy.
Several demographic and economic factors also contributed to this crucial mutation: the permanent settlement or temporary stay of Latins in cities, especially coastal cities along the main maritime lanes, or their presence in castles as in the Morea; the population growth in coastal cities; the supply of goods and services to traders and ships in transit; finally, the expanding demand for specific agricultural commodities in Venice, the Angevin kingdom of Sicily, and other areas of the West. The growing volume of demand and exchange, particularly in connection with long-distance trade, generated an influx of cash that stimulated the economy of Latin Romania, and so did new forms of credit and profit-sharing ventures.ll2 The incentives provided by the new economic pattern had a major impact on the agricultural sector, and account for the growth in productivity and total output. Agricultural production in the fertile areas of Latin Romania, especially the Peloponnese and Crete, became increasingly geared to export in the course of the thirteenth century.
The sale of Cretan wheat to Venice began in the late sixties. Since 1281 the Venetian government occasionally guaranteed Cretan producers and traders higher prices than on the free market, in order to ensure a massive supply of this commodity. Wine, raisins, oil, cheese, hides, wool, silk, honey, and kermes, a dye-material, were also in high demand in the West. Latin landlords and Greek archontes, living on their land or in its vicinity, enhanced security, stability, and continuity in cultivation, and were among the main beneficiaries of growth in output. Burgesses investing in agricultural ventures and peasants farming their own or leased land and raising cattle also had a share in the prosperity it generated.ll3 It should be noted that the increase in agricultural produce was largely achieved within the inherited agrarian and social structures. Eventually, however, the urge to ensure growing profits determined a departure from Byzantine traditions in the management of large estates.
This process is documented for the fourteenth century, although it may have begun earlier. From the Moreot surveys it appears that the agents of some absentee Italian fief-holders increased agricultural output by introducing structural changes in the organization and exploitation of their employers' large estates, together with new types of cultures and new agricultural techniques. They established large farms of a kind known in southern Italy as massarie, directly exploited by the landlord with the help of the peasants' labour services and hired labour. In the Morea these farms were mainly devoted to intensive cultivation based on irrigation and the use of manure. The agents also improved the marketing process of agricultural produce by cooperating with Italian traders active in the coastal towns of the Peloponnese.
The commercial approach of the Italian landlords to their estates is well illustrated by the survey of the area of Corinth compiled in 1365 for Niccolo Acciaiuoli, member of a Florentine banking family: this survey displays registration techniques and double-entry book-keeping similar to those used by contemporary Italian trading and banking firms.ll4 In spite of fluctuations in agricultural production, it seems that on the whole the countryside of Latin Romania was more prosperous than before the conquest, except in areas devastated and depopulated by warfare and piracy.llS Little is known about the organization and productive capacity of crafts and industries in Latin Romania. The greater concentration of population in urban centers obviously enhanced the production of wares for the local consumer market. However, there was no growth in export industries, with the exception perhaps of tanning. The silk industry appears to have declined. The large-scale export to the West of raw silk and kermes is indicative in this respect, though the silk workshops also remained active. Between 1300 and 1330 a Jewish entrepeneur of Negroponte supplied silk and dyes to local craftsmen.
The production of samit continued, but was not sufficient to enable sizeable exports. Significantly, neither the survey of 1365 covering Corinth, nor sources bearing on Thebes mention the manufacture of silk in these cities, known for their industry in the twelfth century.1l6 Glass production also seems to have declined, presumably in connection with its rise in Venice in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth century. Greek craftsmen and painters in this city were then involved in the manufacturing of large amounts of glass vessels intended for export to Romania. 117 Latin Romania increasingly became a supplier of raw materials for industries in the West and absorbed the latter's finished products. The economic development of the cities determined their demographic growth and altered their relative importance. The course of land and sea routes was gradually adjusted so as to integrate them into the new supply system of the area. In addition to economic factors, however, the pattern of Latin settlement as well as the foundation of new urban centres, such as Canea in Crete and Clarence in the Morea, were also related to political and military developments.
In some cases the latter affected the level of economic activity: in 1365 the commercium of Corinth, a city suffering from Catalan raids in the area, was leased for the sum of 340 hyperpyra, rather small considering the city's location and bustling economy in the twelfth century.1l8 An important departure from Byzantine economic patterns occurred in yet another field. To be sure, Greeks continued to participate in local and regional land trade, as at seasonal fairs like the one held in 1296 at Vervena, in the region of Skorta, where a Byzantine archon came to sell his raw silk. 119 Greeks were also involved in shortrange and regional maritime trade and shipping. l20 Yet Venetians and other Latin settlers in this area participated in growing numbers in these activities at the expense of indigenous merchants and ship operators, and since the 1270s local Greek traders in the Aegean seem to have increasingly relied on Latin crafts.
The influx of capital derived from long-distance commerce and transport, and the protection provided by Venice to its citizens and subjects settled and active in various cities of Latin Romania. Local and regional trade and shipping were increasingly subordinated to the requirements, course, and rhythm of this long-distance activity, which became the almost exclusive preserve of Venetian citizens acting as itinerant merchants. The Venetian web of commercial outposts established on foreign soil and colonies under direct state rule greatly fostered the range, variety, and volume of Venetian maritime trade flowing within and through Latin Romania. The overwhelming importance in this area of Venetian coinage, which replaced that of Byzantium, is but one aspect of the economic hegemony of Venice.
Thanks to its geographical position and to Venetian activity, Latin Romania became firmly integrated within the triangular eastern Mediterranean trade pattern linking tl'le Black Sea, Constantinople, and the imperial lands, with the crusader and Muslim Levant as well as with the West.121 The Latin conquest was followed by a definite rupture on three different levels. First, political power became a Latin monopoly, although its exercise differed in feudalized and non-feudalized territories. Secondly, the new social stratification, common to all territories regardless of their specific political and social regime, was not only a reflection of the conquerors' social attitudes, but also an instrument of domination and as such an expression of their political power.
Thirdly, the symbiotic relationship that developed between Latins and Greeks in daily life did not conceal the persistent, only marginally bridged rift, which existed between the two communities, nor their contrasting orientation, with strong Latin links to the West and the Greeks firmly rooted in the Byzantine past. It is within these parameters that the evolution of Latin Romania took place in the first century or so after the conquest. Latin pragmatism and flexibility, as well as the strength inherent in the Byzantine institutional and operational infrastucture account for the large measure of continuity displayed by the rural world of Latin Romania.
The Greek peasantry and the rural economy constituted the main sources of revenue of the Latin elite and the Venetian government, who maintained the Byzantine social and economic fabric as long as it furthered their interests, did not restrict their exercise of power and authority, or endanger the Latins' collective survival. The continuity of microeconomic structures, also expressed in legal and operational terms, extended even further to crafts as well as to local and regional trade.
It is most significant that the great shift that occurred in the economic evolution of Latin Romania only marginally affected these structures Continuity was most pronounced in the portion of the Greek community headed by the archontes, which functioned as an aggregation of autonomous socio-spatial networks. In this framework the archontes preserved their traditional standing, based on rural wealth in an initially underdeveloped market economy, and to some extent acted as heirs to the Byzantine state. In the absence of any system of powersharing, the exercise of their traditional authority within the Greek community served as a safety-valve for the Latins.
The co-ordination of the Greek social networks with the political, social, and economic superstructures instituted by the Latins was an expression of the latter's accomodation, imperative for a small ruling minority intent on preserving its group identity in the midst of an overwhelmingly indigenous population. The interpenetration of Byzantine and western elements at the institutional level was of a general nature, although Byzantine and Latin conceptions of political authority often clashed, particularly in feudalized areas. This is yet another aspect of the Latins' attitude to the Byzantine environment, and the measure of accomodation they were willing to accept. In sum, continuity, adaptation, and change were interconnecting and intersecting phenomena in Latin Romania.
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