Download PDF | Jaroslav Folda, Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre, 1187-1291, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
798 Pages
CRUSADER ART IN THE HOLY LAND,
FROM THE THIRD CRUSADE TO THE FALL OF ACRE, 1187-1291
In this monumental work, Jaroslav Folda examines the art and architecture produced for the Crusaders during the century that Acre served as the capital of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, from 1191 to 1291. Commissioned by Crusaders, pilgrims, merchants, and resident Franks in the Crusader territories of SyriaPalestine, these artworks were produced by Westerners who had traveled to the Latin East, resident Franks, Eastern Christians, and even Muslims who worked for Crusader patrons. Defining “Crusader art” as one that meshes the traditions of the Latin West and the Greek and Islamic East, Folda identifies the surviving works, discusses the main artistic developments in historical context, and shows how thirteenth-century Crusader art differs from that produced in the twelfth century. Although important achievements were made in religious book painting and coinage, the most dramatic innovations are found in icon painting and secular manuscript illustration. The result of years of research, Crusader Art in the Holy Land synthesizes the scholarship on a significant chapter in the history of medieval art. Lavishly illustrated with more than four hundred illustrations, this volume also includes a CD-ROM with a complete set of more than 500 illustrations from Crusader manuscripts.
Jaroslav Folda is N. Ferebee Taylor Professor of the History of Art at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. A scholar of medieval art, he is the author of numerous articles and books, including The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land, 1098-1197, which received the Charles Homer Haskins Medal from the Medieval Academy of America in 1999.
PREFACE
COMMENTS ON THE PROCESS OF RESEARCHING AND WRITING THIS BOOK, WITH ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book forms part of a historical study on the nature and development of Crusader art in the immediate context of the Holy Land on the mainland of Syria-Palestine and in the broader setting of Europe and the Mediterranean world between 1098 and 1291. In the first volume of this study I dealt with the art of the Crusaders between 1098 and 1187. In this volume I have attempted to tell the story of Crusader artistic developments in the turbulent years between the time of the battle of Hattin and the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187 up to the Mamluk conquest of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1291.
Because the research for this project goes back to my first visit to the Near East in 1973, there are many persons and many institutions to which I am indebted for assistance, too many to thank specifically or adequately here. I have tried to mention all of them at various points along the way, either in publications produced in the earlier stages of this project or in this volume itself. For everyone who is named I want to express my thanks for their generous aid and support. For others who assisted me but who may not be named, I want to thank them as well and ask their indulgence and patience with a scholar whose intentions were correct but whose execution may be less than perfect.
I started writing this book in the fall of 1998 while appointed as the Allen W. Clowes Fellow at the National Humanities Center in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. For the academic year 1998-9, the National Endowment for the Humanities had also awarded me a fellowship for university teachers, and this was supplemented by a research leave from the University of North Carolina. Taken together this support enabled me to work intensively on my research and writing for a total of fifteen months, from May of 1998 to August of 1999. The conceptualization of the overall agenda and the development of the main lines of argument of this book, along with the difficult first weeks of getting started with the writing, thus began in the congenial and stimulating setting of the National Humanities Center. The long, exciting process of formulating and evaluating what we know of Crusader art between 1187 and 1291 then followed, and Part One of the book, constituting the discussion of the period 1187-1244, was completed in these auspicious circumstances.
I can state categorically that the early chapters, 1-5, that cover this period were unusually challenging because of the
turmoil in the Latin East and the relative scarcity of extant Crusader art identifiable to these years. Furthermore, the fact that whereas between 1095 and 1187 —a period of ninety-two years — there were only two Crusades, but between 1187 and 1244 —a period of fifty-seven years — there were eight Crusades, means that the historical discussion is more complex and encumbered with a much larger and more diverse bibliographical apparatus. I would not have been able to deal with this difficult period as seriously, as efficiently, or as expeditiously had it not been for the exceptional support of the Library Service at the National Humanities Center. I would like to take this opportunity to extend my deep gratitude to Alan Tuttle, Jean Houston, and Eliza Robertson for their wonderful work, day in and day out. Without their help, this book would not be finished now, and it might never have been finished.
Chapter 6, dealing with the years 1244 to 1268, occupies a pivotal position in this book. It is during this period that Hohenstaufen claims to the crown of Jerusalem finally ended, that the power of feudal lords in the Latin Kingdom dominated over royal rule, that mercantile hegemony shifted from Genoa and Pisa to Venice in the Crusader East, that the Ayyubid dynasty succumbed to Mamluk rule in Cairo, and, of course, that Louis IX came on Crusade to the Near East. These developments have a profound impact on the art of the Crusaders, which blossomed under French and Italian stimulus.
For the writing of the art historical section of Chapter 6, I was privileged to be appointed to the Institute for the Arts and Humanities at the University of North Carolina in the spring semester of 2001. In the stimulating circumstances of this faculty seminar, I was able to investigate and complete my interpretation of the crucial artistic developments in the Latin Kingdom associated with the patronage of King Louis IX and executed in the aftermath of his nearly four-year visit.
I thank the institute and its director, Ruel W. Tyson, for making this fruitful semester’s work possible. I would also like to thank the various librarians at the University of North Carolina for their help and support in dealing with this project during the summer of 2000 and the spring of 2001. I thank especially Pat Thompson, librarian of the Sloane Art Library, and her able assistant, Rachel Frew. There is also the outstanding Humanities Reference Staff in the Walter Royal Davis Library of the University of North Carolina, including the interlibrary loan librarians, who helped me with the consultation of numerous works not held in libraries in the Research Triangle of North Carolina.
The last three chapters of this book — Chapter 7, dealing with the years 1268 to 1289; Chapter 8, covering the years 128991; and the concluding Chapter 9 — were effectively written in the auspicious circumstances of the Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts (CASVA) at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. | am grateful for the appointment as an Ailsa Mellon Bruce Senior Research Fellow during the spring semester of 2002, which gave me the opportunity to complete my study in a timely manner. The library, staff, and Fellows of the center were very helpful to me in various ways, and I thank especially the dean of the center, Elizabeth Cropper, for welcoming me to CASVA, and my colleagues M. Shreve Simpson, Margherita Azzi, and Lamia Doumato for helpful suggestions drawn from their areas of expertise as I worked. I was also fortunate to have had my office on the friendly confines of the third floor in the East Building where my friend and colleague Andrew Robison, curator of prints and drawings, has his curatorial offices. Finally, there at CASVA my research needs also depended heavily on the services of the Library of the National Gallery of Art and the interlibrary loan services. I would like to express my warm gratitude to the reference librarian, Lamia Doumato, for her help and interest in my project, and to Thomas McGill, Jr., and his able staff of interlibrary loan librarians for cheerfully and efficiently helping me to find the books at the Library of Congress and elsewhere that I needed to press on with my work. In those cases when my requirements could not be met in normal circumstances, I resorted to the library at the Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. I would like to thank the director of Byzantine studies there, Alice-Mary Talbot, and the Byzantine librarian, Irene Vasleff, for their valuable help and support whenever needed. Finally my thanks to Fr. Seamus Finn for the hospitality of the OMI House during my six months in Washington, D.C.
I hope that the National Humanities Center, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Institute for the Arts and Humanities of the University of North Carolina, the Center for Advanced Study of the Visual Arts, and the University of North Carolina, along with other agencies that support research in the humanities and that have assisted me over the years, will find their generosity to me at least partly rewarded by the publication of this book. I am truly grateful to these institutions for their confidence in my work and their willingness to invest their financial resources in this large, long-term project that has now stretched over thirty years since my first visit to the Holy Land in 1973.
Needless to say, I have benefited from the intellect, talents, and assistance of a large number of colleagues in diverse fields. Among those whom I can thank here for substantial help at some point in this large project that has taken me nearly five years to write, I express my gratitude to the many colleagues in the fields of archaeology, art history, history, medieval studies, numismatics, and other fields who have helped me with my work on this study. The footnotes indicate who many of these scholars are, but [ also want to mention certain colleagues with whom I have had especially fruitful interchanges over the years: Francois Avril, Malcolm Barber, Martin Biddle, Paul Binski, T. S. R. Boase (t), Elizabeth Bolman, Alan Borg,
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Caroline Bruzelius, Hugo Buchthal (t), Annemarie Weyl Carr, Carolyn Connor, Giles Constable, Rebecca Corrie, Anthony Cutler, Anne Derbes, Erica Dodd, Peter Edbury, Helen Evans, Ilene Forsyth, George Galavaris (t), David Ganz, Sharon Gerstel, Dorothy Glass, Philip Grierson, Bernard Hamilton, Harry Hazard (t), Angela Hero, Norman Housley, Lucy-Anne Hunt, R. B. C. Huygens, Benjamin Kedar, Nurith Kenaan-Kedar, Herbert Kessler, Bianca Kiihnel, Gustav Kiihnel, David Jacoby, Hans E. Mayer, Michael Metcalf, Doula Mouriki (t), Robert Nelson, Robert Ousterhout, Valentino Pace, Richard Pfaff, Michele Piccirillo, John Porteous, Joshua Prawer (t), Denys Pringle, Susan Rankin, Scott Redford, Jean Richard, Jonathan Riley-Smith, Nancy Sevéenko, Alison Stones, Lee Striker, Kurt Weitzmann (t), John Wilkinson, Joseph Wittig, and Barbara Zeitler.
Of the scholars presented in this list, I would like to single out three for special mention as being instrumental in making it possible for me to do this study. The first is Kurt Weitzmann, who, as my undergraduate teacher, first inspired me to enter the field of medieval art history. It was Professor Weitzmann who did such pioneering work on the study of Byzantine icons and laid the foundations for scholarly research of the icons associated with the Crusaders now in the collection of the Monastery of St. Catherine at Mount Sinai. It was his work along with that of George Forsyth as part of the MichiganPrinceton-Alexandria expeditions to Mount Sinai in the 1950s and 1960s that resulted in the establishment of the Sinai Photographic Archive at the University of Michigan.
Although Professor Weitzmann was unfailingly generous in sharing his knowledge of the icons and in allowing me to consult the photographs in his office at Princeton for my research, he died before I began the phase of my project in which thirteenth-century icons play such a major part. At his death Professor George Galavaris, one of Kurt Weitzmann’s most outstanding former graduate students, stepped forward to assume the mantle of his mentor. It was Professor Galavaris, then at the University of Montreal, who assumed responsibility for the Sinai icon research project founded by Weitzmann. It was my great good fortune that Professor Galavaris kindly continued Kurt Weitzmann’s scholarly generosity toward me. This was manifested in his willingness to write to Archbishop Damianos at St. Catherine’s Monastery on my behalf, leading to my second visit there, and, in a letter dated 14 February 1997, he granted me the opportunity to assemble a full working collection of photographs of the Western-influenced icons in the collection at the Monastery of St. Catherine from the Sinai Archive at the University of Michigan, curated by Gertraud Reynolds.
Finally, Hugo Buchthal also deserves special mention as well because of his crucial role in introducing me into the world of Crusader manuscript illumination. Not only did he encourage me to pursue my doctoral research on the illustrated manuscripts of William of Tyre’s History of Outremer, a subject in which he, of course, had broken the first ground, but he also personally supervised the writing of my dissertation, standing in as an act of generous friendship for my major professor at the Johns Hopkins University, Dr. Adolf Katzenellenbogen, who had died suddenly in the fall of 1964. The lessons I learned about researching medieval manuscripts as the result of his mentoring have substantially undergirded my work over the years. In conclusion, I can say forthrightly that this volume, which brings icon painting and manuscript illumination together in various ways, owes a huge debt to all three of these scholars.
Among the excellent graduate students I have worked with over the years, I should like to thank the following persons for their stimulating seminar presentations that pertained to thirteenth-century art in the medieval Mediterranean world: Shannon Cottin-Bizonne, Molly Cronenwett, Ann Driscoll, Mary Fournier, Irene Gates, Jennifer Germann, Evan Gatti, Elizabeth Howie, Elizabeth Hudson, Kimberly Judge, Art McClendon, Gloria Park, Kirstin Ringelberg, Jessica Sponsler, Camille Tewell, Pamela Whedon, Elle Winsor, and Lila Yawn. I would also like to thank my research assistant, Allison Fox, who was cheerfully and unfailingly helpful during the final months of preparing this study for production in the fall of 2003.
My research on Crusader material has been facilitated by many people in many institutions at many places. I thank the following institutions for assistance and access to their collections: the American Schools of Oriental Research with centers in Jerusalem, Amman, and Nicosia; the American University in Beirut; the Archive Nationale in Paris; the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford; the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana in Vatican City; the Biblioteca Capitolare in Perugia; the Biblioteca Capitolare in Padua; the Biblioteca Laurenziana in Florence; the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice; the Biblioteca Nazionale in Naples; the Biblioteca Riccardiana in Florence; the Bibliothéque d’Art et d’Archéologie (Fondation Doucet) in Paris; the Bibliothéque de I’Arsenal in Paris; the Bibliotheque Municipale in Boulogne-sur-Mer; the Bibliothéque Municipale in Clermont-Ferrand; the Bibliothéque Municipale in Dijon; the Bibliothéque Municipale in Lyon; the Bibliothéque Nationale in Paris; the Bibliotheque Royale in Brussels; the Bodleian Library in Oxford; the British Library in London; the British Museum in London; the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem; the Byzantine Library of the Collége de France in Paris; the Institut de Recherche et d’Histoire des Textes in Paris; the Jewish Museum and the Rockefeller Museum of the Israel Antiquities Authority in Jerusalem; the J. Pierpont Morgan Library in New York; the Library and Collections of the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge; the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.; the Library of the Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies in Washington, D.C.; the Library of the Ecole Biblique in Jerusalem; the Library of Gonville and Caius College in Cambridge; the Library of the Greek Patriarchate in Jerusalem; the Library of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem; the Library of the Institut Catholique in Paris; the Johns Hopkins University Department of Art History Photograph Archive; the Library of the Musée Condé at Chantilly; the Library of the National Gallery of Art and the Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts in Washington, D.C.; the Library and Collections of the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore; the Library and Photo Archive of the Warburg Institute in London; the National Library of Russia (formerly the M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public Library) in St. Petersburg; the Monastery of St. Catherine at Mount Sinai; the Musée des Monuments Frangais in Paris; the Musée du Louvre in Paris; the National Museum in Damascus; the Parker Library at Corpus Christi College in Cambridge; the Rockefeller Library of Princeton University
in Princeton; the Semitic Museum of Harvard University in Cambridge, Mass.; the Sinai Archive at the University of Michigan; the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum in Jerusalem; the Victoria and Albert Museum in London; and the Walter Royal Davis, Louis Round Wilson, and Joseph C. Sloane Libraries of the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill.
Among these institutions, | acknowledge with special gratitude the generous hospitality of the abbot, Damianos, archbishop of Sinai and Raitho, and the fathers of the Monastery of St. Catherine at Mount Sinai, in particular Father Daniel and Father Justin, who assisted me during my most recent research trip to Sinai. These holy men face a tremendous challenge in that they follow the centuries-old and rigorous spiritual life of the monk but still find ways to make it possible for pilgrims and travelers to visit their monastery and for scholars to work on their incomparable artistic treasures. I thank Archbishop Damianos and the fathers of the monastery for facilitating my research on the icons in their collection and for their permission to publish the “Western-influenced” icons so crucial for this study.
The photographic documentation is one of the essential elements of this book, and I am especially indebted to those persons and institutions mentioned earlier for helping me to assemble the needed materials. My thanks are especially due to Gertraud Reynolds, curator of the Michigan-Princeton-Alexandria “Sinai Archive” at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, who has unfailingly responded to my many requests for photographs of Sinai icons. I am also extremely grateful to the University of Michigan for its courtesy to scholars in waiving fees for permission to publish photographs in its archive.
Another important aspect of the photographic documentation of this study is the compact disk that accompanies this book and contains illustrations of all extant decorated manuscripts known to be Crusader. For the production of this CD I thank the director, Douglas Mokaren, and his able staff in “Medical Illustration,” which is the Photographic Laboratory of the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill. I particularly want to thank Doug Mokaren for the preparation of the documentary CD; I owe its ease of access and all of its “userfriendly” features to his excellent design and execution.
For assistance with other photograph documentation and certain illustrations of this book, additional thanks are due. I thank especially Jennifer Bauer, head of visual resources in the Department of Art at the University of North Carolina, for her assistance, and Kimberly Judge, who worked carefully on the production of a large number of photos on my behalf. Finally, I want to express my gratitude to Patricia Neumann for her excellent work on the maps in this book at her Geo-Graphics studio in Manhattan Beach, California.
The text of this book has benefited from a critical reading by several of my colleagues. I especially thank Annemarie Wey] Carr, Anne Derbes, and Jonathan Riley-Smith for reading the entire text and making copious comments and suggestions, the implementation of which has greatly improved the end result. Jonathan Riley-Smith in particular critiqued the text in great detail and urged me to compress the historical introductions as much as possible. I have truly attempted to follow that advice, but mindful of what I perceive to be the needs of art historians reading this book, no doubt what remains will be somewhat more than he hoped for. I express my thanks also to Dorothy Glass for reading Chapter 4 and to Daniel Weiss for reading Chapter 6. These scholars have all assisted me enormously in my efforts to write clearly, directly, and effectively - making my points clearly, presenting the state of the question directly, and arguing my interpretations effectively. For substantial help with compiling the bibliography at the end of this study, which pertains to this volume only, I am grateful for the able and efficient work of Dr. Lilla Kopar. For the valuable index of manuscripts, | am once again indebted to Roberta Englemann for her meticulous and excellent work in the XML format. Let me state enthusiastically how much I appreciate the contributions that all of these colleagues have made to the successful completion of this study, and let me also state clearly that any remaining errors or blemishes are, of course, my responsibility alone.
Cambridge University Press and my excellent editor, Dr. Beatrice Rehl, did an outstanding job in publishing the first volume of this study, so I was enormously pleased when they accepted this second volume as well. I want to thank Beatrice Rehl warmly for her able and enthusiastic leadership in guiding this work through the long process to final publication. Alan Gold is to be thanked for his excellent work on the design of this book. Michie Shaw, my production manager at TechBooks, deserves my warm thanks for her prompt and efficient work.
Finally, let me say that a publication like this is complex and expensive. I would like to express my gratitude to Cambridge University Press and the following agencies for financial support and special subventions enabling me to publish this book
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in a handsome and practical format with full documentary illustrations.
For a generous subvention, I thank the College Art Association for a Millard Meiss grant to Cambridge University Press to support the program of reproductions for this project. For a special subvention to support the publication of a selection of color plates, I thank the Samuel H. Kress Foundation.
For subvention grants that were both timely and invaluable, I thank the University Research Council of the University of North Carolina for approving funding for this publication project.
For substantial support during the past two years, | thank the Johnston Foundation of the College of Arts and Sciences at the University of North Carolina for major assistance with the costs associated with the acquisition of photos, for the production of the CD that accompanies this book, and for the fees for permissions to publish these photos in this book.
I dedicate this book to my family: to my wonderful wife, Linda, without whom there would be no book, and to the children and grandchildren with whom the future of our family belongs: Lisa Kristin; Natasha Katherine and her husband, Dr. Farrell O'Gorman; and my grandchildren, Anna Clare and Jaroslav Connelly.
Jaroslav Folda Chapel Hill March 2004
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