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The Crusader World
The Crusader World is a multidisciplinary survey of the current state of research in the field of crusader studies, an area of study which has become increasingly popular in recent years. In this volume Adrian Boas draws together an impressive range of academics, including work from renowned scholars as well as a number of thought-provoking pieces from emerging researchers, in order to provide broad coverage of the major aspects of the period. This authoritative work will play an important role in the future direction of crusading studies. This volume enriches present knowledge of the crusades, addressing such wide-ranging subjects as: intelligence and espionage, gender issues, religious celebrations in crusader Jerusalem, political struggles in crusader Antioch, the archaeological study of battle sites and fortifications, diseases suffered by the crusaders, crusading in northern Europe and Spain and the impact of crusader art.
The relationship between crusaders and Muslims, two distinct and in many way opposing cultures, is also examined in depth, including a discussion of how the Franks perceived their enemies. Arranged into eight thematic sections, The Crusader World considers many central issues as well as a large number of less familiar topics of the crusades, crusader society, history and culture. With over 100 photographs, line drawings and maps, this impressive collection of essays is a key resource for students and scholars alike.
Adrian J. Boas is Professor of Medieval Archaeology in the Departments of Archaeology and Land of Israel Studies at Haifa University, Israel.
CONTRIBUTORS
Reuven Amitai is Eliyahu Elath Professor of Islamic History at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He has recently published Holy War and Rapprochement: Studies in the Relations between the Mamluk Sultanate and the Mongol Ilkhanate (1260–1335) (Brepols, 2013) and Nomads as Agents of Cultural Change: The Mongols and Their Eurasian Predecessors, co-edited with Michal Biran (University of Hawai’i, 2014). Michael Angold is Professor Emeritus of Byzantine History at the University of Edinburgh. He is the author of several books on the history of the Byzantine Empire, most recently The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans: Context and Consequences (2012). He also edited Cambridge History of Christianity V: Eastern Christianity (2008). He is working on a translation of the works of Nicholas Mesarites, Bishop of Ephesos. Adrian J. Boas is Professor of Medieval Archaeology in the Department of Archaeology and the Department of Land of Israel Studies at the University of Haifa. He has excavated urban and rural sites and castles and is currently director the Montfort Castle Project. He has published several books including Crusader Archaeology (1999), Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades (2001), Archaeology of the Military Orders (2006) and Domestic Settings (2010). Karl Borchardt teaches medieval history at the University of Würzburg and is working at the Monumenta Germaniae Historica in Munich, preparing an edition of the letter-collections named after Petrus de Vinea (d. 1249). His fields of interest include the militaryreligious orders, especially the Hospitallers. He has published a number of articles on their commanderies in Central Europe and among his publications has co-edited the Hospitaller documents from Rhodes concerning Cyprus 1409–59 (2011). Together with Damien Carraz and Alain Venturini he is publishing circa 350 weekly accounts of the important Hospitaller commandery at Manosque in Provence from the 1280s. Marcus Bull is Andrew W. Mellon Distinguished Professor of Medieval and Early Modern Studies at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. His publications include Knightly Piety and the Lay Response to the First Crusade (Oxford, 1993), The Miracles of Our Lady of Rocamadour (Woodbridge, 1999), Thinking Medieval (Basingstoke, 2005), and, with Damien Kempf, The Historia Iherosolimitana of Robert the Monk (Woodbridge, 2013). His latest research includes a study of the Great Siege of Malta (1565), and an investigation of the nature of eyewitness testimony in medieval and early modern historiographical texts. Jochen Burgtorf is Professor of Medieval History at California State University, Fullerton (USA). He is the author of The Central Convent of Hospitallers and Templars: History, Organization, and Personnel (1099/1120–1310) (2008), a co-editor (with Helen J. Nicholson and Paul F. Crawford) of The Debate on the Trial of the Templars (1307–1314) (2010), and a collaborator of the international ‘Regesta Pontificum Romanorum’ project on pre-1198 papal documents. Paul E. Chevedden (1986, UCLA) is an independent scholar specializing in the crusades and has published numerous studies pertaining to crusading warfare, the origins of the crusades, and post-crusade Muslim society in Spain, among them, with Robert I. Burns, Negotiating Cultures: Bilingual Surrender Treaties in Muslim-Crusader Spain under James the Conqueror (1999). Nikolaos G. Chrissis (PhD London) is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the University of Athens. He has taught history at the universities of London and Birmingham and at the Hellenic Open University. His main interests revolve around Byzantine-Western interaction, the crusades, the papacy, and Byzantine identity. His publications include the monograph Crusading in Frankish Greece: A Study of Byzantine-Western Relations and Attitudes, 1204–1282 (2012), while he also co-edited the volume Contact and Conflict in Frankish Greece and the Aegean, 1204–1453 (2014). Niall Christie teaches the history of Europe and the Muslim world at Langara College in Vancouver, Canada. His research focuses on interactions between the Middle East and Europe in the Middle Ages. He is the author of a range of publications, including two books: Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity’s Wars in the Middle East, 1095–1382, from the Islamic Sources (2014), and The Book of the Jihad of ‘Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami (d. 1106): Text, Translation and Commentary (in press). Nicholas Coureas works as a Senior Researcher at the Cyprus Research Centre in Nicosia on the history of Lusignan Cyprus (1191–1473). He has published various articles and books on this subject, including the monograph The Latin Church of Cyprus, 1195–1312 (1997) and its sequel The Latin Church of Cyprus 1313–1378 (2010). Together with Peter Edbury he will publish a new translation of the fifteenth-century anonymous Cypriot chronicle of ‘Amadi’ for the Cyprus Research Centre early in 2015. Gary Dickson has a BA from Stanford, MA from Yale and PhD from Edinburgh. He is a medievalist at the University of Edinburgh; formerly Reader in History, currently Honorary Fellow. His publications include Religious Enthusiasm in the Medieval West: Revivals, Crusades, Saints (2000) and The Children’s Crusade: Medieval History; Modern Mythistory (2008). Work in progress includes Medieval Pentecostalism: Charismatic Christianity in Western Europe, 1000–1500.
Gil Fishhof teaches medieval and crusader art history in the Department of Art History at Tel Aviv University. He specializes in French Romanesque art, and devotes his research to questions of Romanesque architecture in Burgundy; patronage; art within the order of Cluny; and the meaning of models in Romanesque architecture. Dr Fishhof’s second area of research is crusader art, and his studies are dedicated to the mural cycle of the church of Emmaus (Abu-Gosh) and its Hospitaller patrons, as well as to the church of the Annunciation in Nazareth. His publications appeared in Mediaevistik, Arte Medievale, Annales de Bourgogne and Viator, among others. Jaroslav Folda is the N. Ferebee Taylor Professor of the History of Art, emeritus, at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. His recent publications include: The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land, 1098–1187 (1995; awarded the Haskins Medal by the Medieval Academy of America in 1999); Crusader Art in the Holy Land, from the Third Crusade to the fall of Acre: 1187–1291 (2005); and Crusader Art: The Art of the Crusaders in the Holy Land, 1099–1291 (2008). Alan Forey, who is now retired, taught in the universities of Oxford, St Andrews and Durham. He recently published a study of Western converts to Islam in the Middle Ages, but his main field of research has been military orders and crusades. His publications include The Military Orders from the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries (1992) and The Fall of the Templars in the Crown of Aragon (2001). John France is Professor Emeritus in the History Department at Swansea University specialising in the history of warfare and of crusading. His Victory in the East. A Military History of the First Crusade (1994) combines the two. His most recent book is Perilous Glory, The Rise of Western Military Power (2011). He is presently writing a history of warfare during the crusades. Daniel P. Franke was an Assistant Professor at the United States Military Academy at West Point for three years. His fields of study are high and late medieval warfare, with particular concentrations in the Staufen and late Plantagenet eras. Currently he is working on an analysis of the earls of Suffolk in fourteenth-century England, to be followed by a military biography of Frederick Barbarossa. He has published various articles on medieval warfare and the crusades. Yehoshua Frenkel has a PhD in History of the Middle East (Hebrew University) and is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Humanities, University of Haifa. His research interests and teaching include social and legal history of the pre-modern Arabo-Muslim lands. Among his recent publication are two books: Ḍawʾ al-sārī li-maʿrifat ḫabar Tamīm al-Dārī (On Tamīm al-Dārī and His Waqf in Hebron) Critical Arabic Edition of al-Maqrizi, Ibn Hajar and al-Suyuti epistles, annotated and translated into English with an English introduction (2014); and The Turkic Peoples in Medieval Arabic Writings (2015). Yvonne Friedman is Lazarus Phillips Professor of General History in the Department of History and the Land of Israel Studies and Archeology at Bar-Ilan University and Chair of the Board of Israel Antiquities Authority. She has published several books and many articles on inter-religious historical subjects. Her latest project is a book on peace-processes between the Muslims and the crusaders in the Middle East in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Her book Encounter between Enemies: Captivity and Ransom in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (2002) dealt with ransom as an inter-cultural and inter-religious phenomenon in the medieval Middle East and as a first step of peace-making. Luis García-Guijarro Ramos is Reader in Medieval History at the University of Zaragoza and Secretary of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East. He has published books and articles dealing with the Reconquista, the crusades, the military orders and the Latin Church in the Central Middle Ages. An additional line of his research is centred on the birth and development of political units in Eastern Iberia between the ninth and eleventh centuries. Lydia Perelis Grossowicz obtained her BSc and MSc degrees on Geology from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (1969–74) where she also acted as an educational and research assistant for two years. Since 1975 she has worked at the Geological Survey of Israel as a Senior Researcher on the field of Foraminifera (microfossils). She collaborates with oil and gas companies, water drilling companies, field geologists and archaeologists. She is the author/co-author of more than sixty publications. Darius von Güttner-Sporzyński is a Historian and Research Fellow at the University of Melbourne, Australia. His research and teaching concentrates on cultural aspects of religious warfare, crusading, military orders and identity. His recent publication Poland, Holy War and the Piast Dynasty, 1100–1230 (2014) examines the transmission of the ideology of holy war in Central Europe and its adaptation by the Piast Dynasty of Poland. He is currently working on the first English edition of the Chronica Polonorum by Bishop Vincentius of Kraków. Bernard Hamilton is Emeritus Professor of Crusading History in the University of Nottingham, and President of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East. Among his publications is The Leper King and his Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (2000). He is at present working with Andrew Jotischky on Latin and Orthodox Monasteries in the Crusader States, which will be published by Cambridge University Press. David Jacoby is Professor Emeritus of Medieval History at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem. He has published extensively on intercultural exchange and maritime trade between the West and Byzantium, the Crusader states and Egypt in the eleventh to fifteenth centuries, medieval silk production and trade, and the Jews in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Middle Ages. His latest collection of studies is titled Travellers, Merchants and Settlers across the Mediterranean, Eleventh–Fourteenth Centuries (2014). He is currently working on a book on Crusader Acre and another on Silk and Silk Textiles in Byzantium and the Medieval Mediterranean. Andrew Jotischky is Professor of Medieval History at Lancaster University, where he has taught since 1995. His main areas of research interest are crusading and the crusader states, and more widely the religious culture of the eastern Mediterranean, and monasticism in both the East and West. He has published articles and essays on Eastern/Western religious and cultural interactions, Orthodox influences on Western reform monasticism, pilgrimage and crusading origins. He is the author of The Perfection of Solitude. Hermits and Monks in the Crusader States (1995), The Carmelites and Antiquity (2002), Crusading and the Crusader States (2004) and A Hermit’s Cookbook. Monks, Food and Fasting in the Middle Ages (2011). Nurith Kenaan-Kedar is Professor of Medieval Art History in the Department of Art History, the Faculty of the Arts at Tel Aviv University. She has published widely on crusader art, monumental sculpture and architecture in the Holy Land, Eleanor of Aquitaine as patron of the Visual Arts, and Romanesque and Gothic Marginal sculpture in medieval France. Rabei G. Khamisy has a PhD from the University of Haifa. His dissertation dealt with the history and archaeology of the region of Acre during the Crusader period. He was awarded the Rothschild post-doctoral Fellowship and has carried out a post-doctorate at Cardiff University during which he wrote a book titled Fiefs, Fortresses, Villages and Farms in Western Galilee and Southern Lebanon in the Frankish period (1104–1291): Political, Social and Economic Activities (in press). He has published articles in Crusades, Ordenis Militares, Israel Exploration Journal, al-Masaq and Journal of Medieval Military History. He has been involved in the University of Haifa’s Montfort Castle Project since its foundation in 2006. Raphael Y. Lewis is an archaeologist specialising in landscape archaeology and archaeology of conflicts. He received his PhD in Archaeology at the University of Haifa. He did a post-doctoral research at Harvard University and another at Tel Aviv University. Currently he works as a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Haifa as a member of the Montfort Castle Project. He is also a lecturer of archaeology in the Department of Political Science of Bar-Ilan University. He directed, co-directed and conducted a number of archaeological projects among these sites: Hattin, Arsuf and Mount Zion (Jerusalem). Michael Lower teaches history at the University of Minnesota. He is the author of The Barons’ Crusade: A Call to Arms and Its Consequences (2005). He is currently working on two book projects: a history of the Tunis Crusade of 1270, the last major expedition led by a European monarch in aid of the Holy Land; and a history of medieval mercenaries who crossed the religious divide in North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. Svetlana Luchitskaya is affiliated with the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Universal History as a Senior Researcher of the Department of Historical Anthropology. Her research interests include the history of the crusades and medieval Christian views of Islam. Among her publications are Image of the Other: Muslims in the Crusader Chronicles (2001, in Russian); ‘Pictorial Sources, Coronation Ritual and Daily Life in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem’ in Ritual, Images and Daily Life (ed. G. Jaritz, 2012); ‘Veoir et oïr, legere et audire: réflexions sur les interactions entre tradition orale et écrite dans les sources relatives à la Première croisade’ in Homo legens. Styles et patiques de lecture, Analyses comparées des traditions orales et écrites au Moyen âge (2010); and ‘Wie starben die Jerusalemer Könige’ in Mediävistik. Internationale Zeitschrift für interdisziplinäre Mittelaltersforschung (2009, 2010).
Sophia Menasche has a PhD from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (1980) and is Professor of Medieval History at the Department of History, University of Haifa. She is a visiting fellow at Clare Hall, Cambridge. Her main areas of research are Church history, the papacy, the crusades, medieval communication (propaganda, stereotypes, etc.), the expulsions of Jews (France, England), the reign of Philip the Fair, and the approach to dogs in the Abrahamic religions. Her main books are: The Vox Dei: Communication in the Middle Ages (1990), L’humour en chaire (1996), Clement V (1998), and The Catholic Church in the Middle Ages: Ideology and Politics (2004). Piers D. Mitchell is a biological anthropologist, medical historian and physician who teaches at the University of Cambridge. His research interests focus on disease in the past, and he is the leading authority on health, disease and medicine in the crusades. Piers is President of the Paleopathology Association, the worldwide organisation for the study of ancient diseases. His publications include Medicine in the Crusades: Warfare, Wounds and the Medieval Surgeon (2004), Anatomical Dissection in Enlightenment England and Beyond: Autopsy, Pathology and Display (2012), and Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations (2015). Helen J. Nicholson is Professor of Medieval History at Cardiff University in Wales, and has published extensively on the military orders, crusades, medieval warfare and various related subjects, including articles on ‘Women on the Third Crusade’ (1997) and ‘Queen Sybil of Jerusalem (1186–1190) in History and Legend, 1186–1300’ (2004). In 1997 she published a translation of the Itinerarium peregrinorum et gesta regis Ricardi, an important source for the Third Crusade. She has a particular interest in the role of women in warfare and in religious orders. Aphrodite Papayianni teaches at the universities of London and Oxford. She has a particular interest in the Byzantine-Latin political and ecclesiastical relations, and has published articles on various topics of Byzantine history. Her publications include: ‘The Reaction of the Greek-Orthodox Monastic Community to the Talks about the Reunification of the Two Churches, 1204–1261’ in Church, Society and Monasticism (ed. A. Lopez-Tello Garcia and B. S. Zorzi, 2009); ‘He Polis healo: The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 in Post-Byzantine Popular Literature’ (2010); and ‘The Papacy and the Fourth Crusade in the Correspondence of the Nicaean Emperors with the Popes’ in La Papauté et les Croisades/The Papacy and the Crusades (ed. M. Balard, 2011). Mathias Piana is an independent scholar and member of the scientific board of the Deutsche Burgenvereinigung e.V. His research topics include medieval fortified architecture of the Eastern Mediterranean and transfer processes in medieval architecture. His main publications include: ‘The Crusader Castle of Toron: First Results of its Investigation’ (2006); Burgen und Städte der Kreuzzugszeit (2008); ‘From Montpèlerin to Óarābulus al-Mustajadda: The Frankish-Mamluk Succession in Old Tripoli’ in Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras VI (ed. U. Vermeulen, K. D’hulster, 2010); (co-ed. with Christer Carlsson) Archaeology and Architecture of the Military Orders: New Studies (2014); and ‘A Bulwark Never Conquered: The Fortifications of the Templar Citadel of Tortosa on the Syrian Coast’ in Archaeology and Architecture of the Military Orders, 2014.
Aleksander Pluskowski is Lecturer in Medieval Archaeology at the University of Reading and Director of the Ecology of Crusading Project. His research interests include the relationship between ecological and cultural change in medieval Europe, especially in frontier regions. His publications include: The Archaeology of the Prussian Crusade: Holy War and Colonisation (2012), The Ritual Killing and Burial of Animals: European Perspectives (2012), Breaking and Shaping Beastly Bodies: Animals as Material Culture in the Middle Ages (2007) and Wolves and the Wilderness in the Middle Ages (2006). Eytan Sass is Professor Emeritus of Geology at the Institute of Earth Sciences, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. His interests and academic activity include: sedimentology of carbonate rocks, with emphasis on limestones and dolomites; carbonate platforms of Israel; carbonate geochemistry of major and trace elements, including stable isotopes; and brines, geochemical characterisation and evolution. Vardit Shotten-Hallel is a PhD candidate at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, European Forum. Her thesis focuses on building technologies and materials in churches of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. She holds an MA in Archaeology (University of Haifa) and Diploma in Architecture (University of Cambridge). Since 2003 she has been working at the Israel Antiquities Authority, in the conservation and research of the Hospitaller Compound in Acre, where she recently curated the history and content for the newly opened museum. Edna Stern is a Senior Archaeologist and a Medieval Ceramic Specialist in the Israel Antiquities Authority. She excavates at various sites in northern Israel and studies pottery from the crusader, Mamluk and Ottoman periods. Publications include: (with M. Avissar) Pottery of the Crusader, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Periods in Israel (2005) and ‘Akko I: The 1991–1998 Excavations, The Crusader Period Pottery (2012). Daniella Talmon-Heller is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Middle East Studies of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. She is the author of Islamic Piety in Medieval Syria (2007); co-author (with Nehemia Levtzion and Daphna Ephrat) of Islam – A History (1999– 2003) and (co-editor, with Katia Cytryn-Silverman) of Material Evidence and Narrative Sources: Interdisciplinary Studies of the History of the Muslim Middle East (2014). She is interested in social history, religious thought and practice, comparative religion and medieval historiography. Heiki Valk is Senior Research Fellow at the University of Tartu (Estonia) at the Institute of History and Archaeology, specialising in the archaeology of Late Iron Age and Medieval Estonia. His research interests also include the transition to the Middle Ages, hill forts, and the relations between archaeology and folkloric/ethnographic traditions. His publications include: (with Silvia Laul) Siksälä: A Community at the Frontiers. Iron Age and Medieval (2007); Rural Cemeteries of Southern Estonia 1225–1800 AD (2001); and ‘Strongholds and Power Centres East of the Baltic Sea in the 11th–13th Centuries’ (2014).
INTRODUCTION , Adrian J. Boas
Some of the most profound historical developments, when we look back on them, seem to have emerged without due warning out of a series of apparently minor, almost unnoticeable events which evolved and took on pace, eventually swelling out of all imaginable proportions, so that from our distant perspective it is almost impossible to understand how they even began. Such is the period discussed in this volume. It is in no small part the seemingly spontaneous nature of its origins that makes the crusades a field that has attracted the attention of modern scholars and has turned crusader studies into an increasingly popular academic field. Our fascination in the geneses of the crusades relates perhaps to a desire to comprehend the rapidly developing movements that have similarly impacted the modern world. But the mystery of its origins is only one aspect of the allure of crusader history.
The enormous impact that the crusades and the Frankish East had on the Western world and on the Near East at the time, and on Western culture in later periods, is another. The crusades have been and remain a goldmine for story-tellers, from the romantic novelists of the nineteenth century to film producers of the twentieth. The role of the Latin East as meeting place between Occident and Orient has become of growing consequence in a time of cultural confrontation when the terms ‘Crusade’ and ‘Holy War’ or jihad are increasingly heard in reference to a whole range of ethnic and religious encounters. The clash in the Middle Ages of two distinct and, in many senses, opposing cultures (on the battlefield, in religion, in learning, in diplomacy, in commerce and in daily life) is perhaps more relevant today than it ever was in the past. Over the past decades large numbers of scholars and students have become involved in crusader studies. Crusader sessions and papers are increasingly represented in international medieval conferences. A growing number of crusader courses appear in university curricula and numerous crusader-related websites have made their appearance.
The Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East (SSCLE) now numbers around 500 members, its quadrennial conferences are well attended and its journal, Crusades, has become a prestigious tool with a broad readership. This volume does not attempt to cover every aspect of crusading. There are many excellent comprehensive histories of the crusades and the Latin East as well as major studies devoted to crusader warfare, art, architecture and archaeology. Rather, the aim of this collection has been to present the reader with a broad vista of the crusader world observed through a combination of chapters dealing with central issues together with studies on specific topics and with many examples of new and ongoing research and new approaches. The picture that emerges demonstrates the range and quality of modern scholarship which has advanced greatly over recent decades.
The five papers in Part I examine facets of the activity most prominent in crusader studies. The military aspects of crusading have always been a “hot topic” but recent studies have expanded our horizons, to look more deeply into not only the conflicts themselves but also motivation, participation and the interrelations between participants. Paul Chevedden takes a look at the manner in which Pope Urban II viewed crusading. Helen Nicholson examines the involvement of women in the crusading movement as supporters, victims and participants. John France discusses the contrasting styles of twelfth-century warfare, comparing the methods and leadership of the Western crusaders, Latin settlers and the Muslims. Alan Forey discusses the engagement of paid troops in the service of the military orders, and following these discussions on military activities, a chapter by Yvonne Friedman considers how peacemaking efforts and cross-religious alliances were regarded at the time.
Part II examines some aspects of crusading in the West. Karl Borchardt takes a look at the supportive role played by the principal military orders, in particular by expanding their assets and enabling the supplying of financial support to their houses in the East. Daniel Franke looks at German crusading in the late twelfth century and at recent German historiography. Darius von Güttner-Sporzyński looks at the expansion of Christendom in East Central and Eastern Europe, surveying the various crusades and missionary activities and the broad involvement of the various factions in subjugating and Christianising the pagans and Luis García-Guijarro Ramos presents an insightful examination of the Reconquista in medieval Iberia.
The outcome of the main endeavours of twelfth and thirteenth-century crusading was the occupation and settlement of the Syrian-Palestinian mainland states and the island of Cyprus. Various activities of Latins in the medieval Levant are the topic of five papers in Part III. The role of Italian merchant communes in the Latin East was a paramount one. David Jacoby takes a look at the vicissitudes of Venetian involvement in the Lordship of Tyre. Jochen Burgtorf writes about the complex struggles of succession of the principality of Antioch that evolved in the early thirteenth century. Rabei Khamisy observes settlement and land ownership in the western Galilee. A neglected example of Frankish monarchy is examined in Bernard Hamilton’s study of Queen Alice of Cyprus. In the final chapter in this section, Andrew Jotischky takes a look at the Franciscan Order, the establishment of the custody of the Holy Land in the fourteenth century, and Mt Sion; its holy loci and role in pilgrimage.
In Part IV three papers take a look at different aspects of Byzantium in its relationship with crusading. Nikolaos Chrissis considers how the Byzantine Empire saw and represented itself with regard to the crusades. The manner in which Byzantine historians in the eleventh to thirteenth centuries regarded the crusades is the topic of Aphrodite Papayianni’s chapter, followed by Michael Angold’s examination of how the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187 was viewed in Byzantium.
The meeting between East and West, between Islam and Christianity, so quintessential a part of the crusader experience, is examined in Part V. Niall Christie argues that the Muslims were better acquainted with the Franks prior to the First Crusade than was sometimes represented by medieval Muslim historians and suggests why this ‘illusion of ignorance’ exists. At the other end of the period, Reuven Amitai takes a look at the early Mamluks from their first encounter with the Franks in 1250 through their defeat of the Mongols at Ayn Jālūt in 1260 until their final defeat of the crusader mainland states in 1291. Svetlana Luchitskaya discusses the manner in which chronicles of the First Crusade represent the Muslim political figures. Yehoshua Frenkel examines the manner in which medieval Muslim sources identified Saladin as a latter-day Joseph by making analogies between events in his life and those of the biblical figure.
This theme continues in the chapter by Daniella Talmon-Heller, where medieval Muslim leaders are compared by Muslim authors to notables of the formative period of Islam, their victories to victories of the early Islamic leaders and traitors to former traitors of Islam. Nicholas Coureas examines the complex relationship between Latin Cyprus and the Mamluks. In his broad survey he covers the topics of warfare, diplomacy, cultural and religious exchanges, commerce and settlement, from the time of the establishment of the Mamluk sultanate in 1250 until its demise in 1517 at the hands of the Ottomans. In the final chapter of this section, Michael Lower looks at the legal status of Christian mercenaries in Muslim lands. In Part VI the discussions are devoted to archaeological research.
Mathias Piana expands on the topic of fortifications. Castles are the architectural form most identified with the crusades and Piana examines the history of crusader fortification research, and the development and form of castle building and urban fortifications in the Levant. Raphael Lewis studies two major battle sites: the region between Saforie and the Horns of Hattin in the eastern Galilee, site of perhaps the most significant battle in the history of the crusader states; and Arsur (modern Herzliya) on the central coast of Israel, the location in which the Battle of Arsuf, a significant encounter between the army of the Third Crusade under Richard I and the Ayyubid forces under Saladin, took place in 1191. Lewis exames how the environment of the battle site influenced the outcome of events. In this regard he takes a look at topography, geology, forests, fortifications, climate, water sources, road systems, and hours of sun and moonlight. Vardit Shotten-Hallel, Eytan Sass and Lydia Perelis Grossowicz present some architectural aspects from a new and ongoing study of what was certainly a landmark in castle design at the time of its construction shortly after 1168 – the Hospitaller castle of Belvoir in eastern Israel.
In this chapter, emphasis is placed on the castle chapel, and topics discussed include layout, the types of building materials used and their possible source, and proposed dating of the chapel’s construction. Edna Stern looks at how the examination of imported ceramic finds enlightens us on international commercial connections of the Latin East, most particularly evident in finds from the maritime cities of Acre and Jaffa. Adrian Boas examines different aspects of day-to-day life and the domestic surroundings in Frankish towns and villages. Aleksander Pluskowski and Heiki Valk survey archaeological evidence for conquest, colonisation and Europeanisation of the eastern Baltic. Piers Mitchell’s chapter ends this section with a discussion of archaeological evidence for disease, diet and migration. He examines the eggs of intestinal parasites found in latrine waste in the castle of Saranda Kolones in western Cyprus and in the Hospitaller compound and private houses in Acre and shows how these finds reflect on sanitation, diet, cooking, migration of crusaders and pilgrims and general issues of health of the Frankish population.
The three papers in Part VII examine aspects of crusader art and literature. In many, perhaps most, of their endeavours, Frankish artist and artisans were influenced in varying degrees by the art they came into contact with. Nurith Kenaan-Kedar examines Eastern, Western and Armenian sources for the decorative sculpture found in crusader Jerusalem, concentrating on a specific feature – the goudron frieze, a decorative motif found in several Frankish churches in Jerusalem which she proposes to be an Armenian or north Syrian form adopted in buildings constructed under the patronage of Queen Melisende. Jaroslav Folda assesses the impact of the art of the crusader states on the medieval art of Western Europe.
In the third chapter in this section, Marcus Bull takes a look at narratology in crusader texts through the examination of three crusader narratives: the anonymous Gesta Francorum, the De expugnatione Lyxbonensi and La conquȇte de Constantinople. Remaining in the sphere of crusader art, the first chapter of the final section, Part VIII, which is devoted to the study of the crusades and the Latin East, is Gil Fishhof’s examination of the scholarship of crusader art and his own observations on the sculptural programmes of the Church of the Annunciation in Nazareth.
Sophia Menasche follows with an examination of the role of Joshua Prawer, one of the foremost historians of the crusader period in the twentieth century and founding father of Israeli crusader studies. In the concluding chapter, Gary Dickson asks the seemingly simple but in fact very complex question – What are the crusades? These thirty-eight papers represent a small but notable portion of the vibrant scholarship that has evolved over recent decades and give an insight into not only the more studied aspects of crusader history but also many less familiar topics that form windows through which we can gain an enhanced view of the crusader world.
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