Download PDF | Amnon Linder - Raising Arms_ Liturgy in the Struggle to Liberate Jerusalem in the Late Middle Ages (Cultural Encounters in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages)-Brepols Publishers (2003).
449 Pages
Preface
Liturgy was one of the main forms of action that Europe embraced in its endeavour to liberate the Holy Land. Rites articulated the collective undertaking ofthinking about the idea of Jerusalem and experiencing it emotionally. Liturgy inspired Christianity to raise armies and to fumish them with the sinews of war; it exhorted crusaders to enter battle, sang their victories, and lamented their defeats. Rites were also effective channels of information and propaganda, for the knowledge they irnparted was perceived by the faithful as authoritative, as sharing in the authority of the divinely ordained rite in which it was comprised. Rites, furthermore, addressed the entire community as well as each individual, their appeal simultaneously collective and personal. Liturgy is interwoven, therefore, into the very fabric of the crusade. It can be observed in two complementary circles: an outer circle--of a predominantly collective charactergenerating commitment and support among the non-combatants, and an inner circlefocused mainly on the individual crusader and the actual crusade i.e., the crusading action on the field. Liturgy was practiced, consequently, from the very start of the crusading act.
The crusade led by the French king Philip August, for example, was practically launched with the obligatory ceremony at St Denis: like any French monarch going to war, the king was entrusted there with two standards and two 'vexilla desuper corpora sanctorum'. But the particular crusading character of this campaign was further proclaimed through a supplementary rite: the relies of saints Denis, Rusticus, and Eleutherius were exhibited before the faithful: ut ibi omnes fideles [ ... ] cum gemitu et suspiriis pro sancta terra liberanda, et pro rege Francorum et universo comitatu suo, puras manus cum Moyse levantes ad dominum preces funderent; quia non in arrnorum potentia, sed in Christi virtute et miseratione Christiani confidunt, nec in se, sed in Deo virtutem faciunt.
This explication, so eloquently proffered by Rigordus, is echoed in other sources as well. The crusade was perceived, indeed, as joining together the sword with the Rod of God, the orator entering battle together with the bellator: Moses raising his arms in prayer while Joshua fights the Amalekites arms in hand, and victory is achieved by both, though clear precedence is recognised to the rite performed on high. Preaching campaigns to take the cross depended, similarly, on clerics bringing the word to the laity in the framework ofliturgy.
They preached either in the course of Mass, usually a Votive Mass, or-when churches proved too small to accommodate the crowds-the sermon was deferred to the end of the Mass. This mode of action was applied during the 1188 preaching campaign in Wales-led by Archbishop Baldwin2 -and in the similar circuit undertaken in 1214 throughout northem Germany by Oliverus Scholasticus. 3 Even secular crusading initiatives bore an unmistakable liturgical imprint. The 1188 Imperia! Diet-the official launching pad of the German crusade (Frederic Barbarossa and the German high nobility took the Cross on that occasion)---was convened for Sunday, 27 March, the Laetare Jerusalem Sunday of that year,4 and was widely designated as Curia Dei or Curia Christi. The departure date was fixed, in the same spirit, for 23 April (1189), the day of St George, patron saint ofknights as well as crusaders. The rites that the crusaders practised on the battlefield are fairly well documented.
This is due mainly to the fact that most of the relevant narrative sources were written by clerics, either actual eyewitnesses to the events or chroniclers relying on others for their information, and they tended to transmute their knowledge through ecclesiastical filters and in a mode highly coloured by liturgy. Living, for the most part, in an enclosed world that was ordered through and for ritual, they usually perceived the outer world through liturgical lenses. A war diary written by a military chaplain is bound to read differently from that of the sapper in the trenches. One can expect, therefore, a certain measure of ecclesiastical/liturgical bias in the original crusade historiography. Indeed, some descriptions of the First Crusade read like an unbroken procession ofliturgical and semiliturgical acts-with some fighting thrown in between-performed all the way to Jerusalem and culminating in the first Mass that the crusaders celebrated in the liberated Roly Sepulchre. And in chronicling the fighting for Damietta, the Gesta obsidionis Damiete5 does not omit a single rite in an interminable sequence of Masses, prayers, fasts, and processions that were performed by the clerics among the crusaders. Yet records left by Jay crusaders are not substantially different in this respect.
In a letter sent from the 1249 Damietta campaign, Jean Sarrasin described how, on the eve of the landing, King Louis directed his commanders to have all the crusaders confess and make preparations as before death. Just before going down to the assault boats: li roys oy le service Nostre Seigneur et telle messe que on fait en mer, et s'arma[ ... ] Li rois entra en une coche de Normendie [ ... ]et li legas ausi, si que il tenoit la vraie crois et seignoit les gens armees qui estoient entré les menuz vaissaus por aler prendre terre. 6 Even with ecclesiastical bias recognised and compensated for, it is obvious that rites of war have been an important component of ail wars. Close proximity to horror and death and the impending danger of violent annihilation have always drove people to seek solace from on high. St Louis could not act otherwise, of course, but even a priest-hater like William the Marshal---on his death-bed he would not listen to good spiritual advice concerning the spoils accumulated during a lifetime of soldiering-needed succour. He asked to die in the Templar's white robe, for he had taken a vow to this effect during his crusade to the Roly Land, and to be buried alongside his fellow Templars: 'Qant je fui outre mer, dès lors/ Donai je al Temple mon cors/ A[i]jesir, quant je morreie,/Issi le vuil et g'i gerrai'.7
Williamdied in his bed, but death on a battlefield was far more terrifying and those about to die in battle in greater need, as Williams-that contentious soldier-knew only too well on the eve of the battle of Agincourt: 'I am afeared there are few die well that die in battle; for how can they charitably dispose of anything when blood is their argument?' 8 Nonetheless, the modem historiography of the crusades completely ignores liturgy; ritual is absent from both the detailed studies of particular crusades and the general accounts of the crusading phenomenon. This situation has been slightly changed in recent years, due to the pioneering work done by two experts on the preaching of the crusade-P. J. Cole9 and C. T. Maier, 10 and to the cognate studies carried out by M. McCormick and A. K. McHardy. 11 Nevertheless, the subject is still largely terra incognita. Almost two centuries of modem research on the crusades have yielded a ri ch harvest of primary sources of all types, but the liturgical sources are not among them. They have not yet been adequately surveyed, let alone made accessible in critical editions. Survey of the sources and publication of the texts are the two main airns of the present study. I have planned it in two stages.
The first comprises the five types ofHoly Land liturgy that were evolved in Europe under the impact of the loss of Jerusalem in 1187: a) the Holy Land Clamor; b) the Holy Land Mass---extant and new triple sets of Mass prayers; c) the dedicated Holy Land Mass; d) the Trental of St Gregory; and e) the Holy Land segments in the Bidding Prayers. They are 'outer circle' rites in the sense that they were evolved and performed in Mass and in Office with a view to recruit crusaders and support the crusade, and in general to sustain the cause of Latin Jerusalem. The second stage ofthis study comprises sources of the 'inner circle '-proper war rites answering the needs of the individual crusader, and rites peculiar to the crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem. They will be published separately. On the assumption that the Holy Land rites evolved out of-and within-larger liturgical types, these sources should be studied in their liturgical context.
I have assumed, furthermore, that these rites were not commonlyperceived in exclusive, absolute terrns, and that theywere targeted on more than one aim, in the same way that the concept 'Holy Land' usually signified more than just the biblical Holy Land defined in precise geographical terms. They should not be studied, therefore, in isolation from their wider contexts. One could not begin to appreciate the full significance of the Holy Land Clamor, for example, unless it is observed against the backdrop of the Clamor contra invasores Ecclesie; the Holy Land Mass should be studied together with the dedicated War Masses against the Turks; and the Trental of St Gregory within the general tradition of supplicatory sets of Masses. One obviously runs the risk of going too far in this direction, ofletting a specific rite practically disappear against its backdrop. Putting things in context, nevertheless, is of prime importance in any study that deals with real life-in all its fuzziness and blurred distinctions-rather than with clear-cut, abstract Ideas. The right balance between the specific rite and its general context should provide us with a better understanding ofboth. This study is based, first and foremost, on manuscripts. Hunting for them proved to be a long, protracted affair but great fun, a sensation fellow-hunters would easily recognize.
I could not have followed it through without the hospitality and co-operation extended by numerous libraries and institutions. Many I have visited personally; others responded generously to my queries and requests. I am particularly grateful to the helpful and hardworking librarians and staff of the Duke Humfrey's Reading Room in the Bodleian Library, Oxford; the Hill Monastic Manuscript Library, St John's University, Collegeville; and the Institut de recherche et d'histoire des textes, Paris. Every visit to these libraries was as enjoyable as it was rewarding.
I am also indebted to the following libraries and institutions, whose collections I have consulted in the course of my research, either in place, in central deposits of microfilms, or through photocopies courteously provided by librarians: Aachen, Domarchiv; Admont, Stiftsbibliothek; Aixen-Provence, Bibliothèque Mejanes; Albi, Bibliothèque municipale; Alençon, Bibliothèque municipale; Amiens, Bibliothèque municipale; Arles, Bibliothèque municipale; Arras, Bibliothèque municipale; Autun, Bibliothèque municipale; Auxerre, Bibliothèque municipale; Avignon, Bibliothèque municipale; Avranches, Bibliothèque municipale; Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek; Barcelona, Archivo Capitularde la Catedral; Boulogne-surMer, Bibliothèque municipale; Bourges, Bibliothèque municipale; Bregenz, Mehrerau Klosterarchiv; Bristol, Public Library; Bruxelles, Bibliothèque royale de Belgique; Budapest, Bibliotheca Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae; Budapest, Orszagos Szechenyi Konyvtar; Caen, Bibliothèque municipale; Cambrai, Bibliothèque municipale; Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum; Cambridge, Gonville and Caius College; Cambridge, Newnham College; Cambridge, St John's College; Cambridge, Sidney and Sussex College; Cambridge, Trinity College; Cambridge, University Library; Carpentras, Bibliothèque municipale; Cava de' Tirreni, Biblioteca della SS Trinità; Chartres, Bibliothèque municipale; Châteauroux, Bibliothèque municipale; Clermont-Ferrand, Bibliothèque municipale; Darmstadt, Hessischen Landes-und-Hochschulbibliothek; Douai, Bibliothèque municipale; Downside Abbey, Stratton on the Fosse, Somerset; Dublin, Trinity College Library; Durham, Dean and Chapter Library; Einsiedeln, Stiftsbibliothek; Erlangen, Universitatsbibliothek; Essen, Domkapitel; Esztergom, Fôszèkesegyhazik Kônyvtar; Florence, Biblioteca Medicea-Laurenziana; Frankfurt am-Main, Stadt-undUniversitatsbibliothek; Gerona, Archivo Capitular; Gerona, Archivo del Seminario Episcopal; Gôttweig, Stiftsbibliothek; Graz, Universitiitsbibliothek; Güssing, Franziskanerkloster; Heiligenkreuz, Stiftsbibliothek; Herzogenburg, Stiftsbibliothek; Holkham Hall, Wells, Norfolk; Huesca, Archivo de la Catedral; Innsbruck, Universitiitsbibliothek; Jerusalem, Custodia di Terra Santa, Studio Biblico Franciscano; Klagenfurt, Bischôfliche Bibliothek; Klagenfurt, Kiimter Landesarchiv; Klagenfurt, Studienbibliothek; Klostemeuburg, Augustiner Chorherrenstift; Kôln, Diôzesan-und-Dombibliothek; Kremsmünster, Stiftsbibliothek; Lambach, Stiftsbibliothek; Laon, Bibliothèque municipale; Leeds, The University Library; Lilienfeld, Stiftsbibliothek; Limoges, Archives Départementales de la Haute-Vienne; Linz, Bundesstaatliche Studienbibliothek; Lisbon, Biblioteca nacional, Fundo Alcobaça; Liverpool, The University Library; Loches, Bibliothèque municipale; London,
The British Library; London, Guildhall Library; London, Lambeth Palace Library; London, The Oratory; London, Victoria and Albert Museum; London, Westminster Abbey; Lons-les-Saunier, Archives Départementales du Jura; Lyon, Bibliothèque municipale; Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional; Manchester, John Rylands University Library; Le Mans, Bibliothèque municipale; Melk, Stiftsbibliothek; Milan, Archivio Storico Civico e Biblioteca Trivulziana; Minehead, Parish church of St Michael; Montargis, Bibliothèque municipale; Monte-Cassino, Protomonastero; Montpellier, Bibliothèque de la Faculté de Médecine; Montserrat, Biblioteca del Monasterio; Monza, Biblioteca Capitolare della Basilica di S. Giovanni Battista; Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek; Munich, Universitiitsbibliothek; Nantes, Bibliothèque municipale; Münster, Bisturnsarchiv; Nantes, Musée Dobrée; Nantua, Bibliothèque municipale; Narbonne, Bibliothèque municipale; Newcastle upon Tyne, University Library; New York, The Burke Library of Union Theological Seminary of the City of New York; New York, Pierpont Morgan Library; New York, The Public Library; Orleans, Bibliothèque municipale; Oxford, Corpus Christi College; Oxford, Keble College; Oxford, Oriel College; Oxford, Pembroke College; Oxford, Trinity College; Oxford, University College; Paisley, Renfrew District Museum and Art Gallery; Pamplona, Archivo General de Navarra; Paris, Bibliothèque del' Arsenal; Paris, Bibliothèque Mazarine; Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France; Paris, Bibliothèque Ste Geneviève; Paris, Bibliothèque de la Ville de Paris; Partridge Green, St Hugh's Charterhouse, Parkminster; Philadelphia,
The Free Library; Philadelphia, The Library Company; Poitiers, Bibliothèque municipale; Pontarlier, Bibliothèque municipale; Princeton, University Library; Provins, Bibliothèque municipale; Rheims, Bibliothèque municipale; Reun, Stiftsbibliothek; Rome, Biblioteca Angelica; Rome, Biblioteca Casanatense; Rouen, Bibliothèque municipale; Salzburg, Museum Carolino-Augusteum; Salzburg, Sankt-Peter Erzabtei; Salzburg, Universitatsbibliothek; Sankt Florian, Stiftsbibliothek; Sankt Paul im Lavanttal, Stiftsbibliothek; Sankt Polten, Bischüfliche Alurnnats-Bibliothek; Schlagl, Stiftsbibliothek; Seitenstetten, Stiftsbibliothek; Spalding, Gentlemen's Society, Lincolnshire; Subiaco, Biblioteca dell'Abbazia; Tarazona, Archivo de la Catedral; Toledo, Biblioteca del Cabildo; Toronto, The Pontifical Institute; Tortosa, Archivo Capitularde Tortosa; Toulouse, Bibliothèque municipale; Trier, Bistumsarchiv; Troyes, Bibliothèque municipale; Ushaw (Durham), St Cuthbert's College; Valenciennes, Bibliothèque municipale; Vallbona de las Monjas, Biblioteca del Monasterio; Vatican, Archivo S. Pietro; Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana; Vich, Biblioteca Episcopal; Vienna, Dominikaner Kloster; Vienna, Ôsterreichische Nationalbibliothek; Vorau, Stiftsbibliothek; Wilhering, Stiftsbibliothek; Winchester College; Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek; York, York Minster Library; Zaragoza, Biblioteca Capitular; Zwettl, Stiftsbibliothek. Research depends on openness, and these libraries opened their treasures and provided me with the required knowledge generously and willingly. 1 am greatly in their debt. 1 have frequently pestered colleagues going abroad to examine for me manuscripts in situ or to photocopy them.
This is the place to thank Y. Hen, B. and G. Kühnel, M. Orfali, and Y. Ziegler for their valuable assistance and Juleen Audrey Eichinger for her untiring, dedicated copyediting.
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