Download PDF | David Nicolle - Armies of the Muslim Conquest-Osprey Publishing Ltd (1993).
48 Pages
INTRODUCTION
The dramatic eruption of the Arab peoples from Arabia after their adoption of the Muslim faith in the 7th century remains one of the most extraordinary events in world history. By the end of that century they ruled a state that stretched from the Atlantic to India, from southern Arabia to Central Asia, covering an area far greater than that of the Roman Empire. Arabia before the time of the Prophet Muhammad was, of course, neither isolated nor particularly backward (see MAA 243 Rome’s Enemies (5): The Desert Frontier); yet it was a divided, wartorn ‘zone of influence’ buffeted between the ancient empires of Rome and Persia.
Warfare, at least among the nomadic bedouin, was a normal aspect of life; while the urban merchant class also had to be tough and warlike to carry on business in a tumultuous world where wealth and the possession of a few horses could give an overwhelming military advantage. The Jewish Arab clans of the northern Hijaz were, for example, famous for their wealth and power, so much so that the Qur’an, Islam’s Holy Book, credited King David with the invention of armour itself: ‘It was We (Allah) who taught him the making of coats of mail for your benefit, to guard you from each other’s violence: Will you then be grateful?’ (Qur'an: 21.80)
On the other hand, we cannot be sure about the economic situation in the late 6th century when the Prophet Muhammad was born. Traditionally it was thought that the Quraysh tribe which dominated Mecca, and of which Muhammad was a member, controlled a widespread trade network. A more recent theory claims that the famous incense route from Southern Arabia had collapsed centuries earlier and that Mecca’s trade was only with local tribes. There was, meanwhile, already a substantial Arab population inside Byzantine Syria and along the desert frontier of Sassanian-ruled Iraq.
By 633 both Byzantium and the Sassanian Empire were exhausted following their recent wars and this, perhaps, encouraged independent Arab centres of power to develop within Arabia. Muslims, of course, see the Prophet’s mission and the amazing success of the new Islamic state as a result of divine revelation. Ibn Khaldun, the 14th century Muslim historian known as the ‘father of modern history’, explained the otherwise inexplicable speed of the subsequent Islamic conquests by suggesting ‘irrational panic’ on the part of their far more powerful Byzantine, Persian and other foes—a panic which Muslims would again attribute to divine will.
THE PROPHET’S FIRST WARRIORS
Arabian warfare was based on different principles from that of their larger neighbours, razzia raiding being the most common tactic. Courage, endurance, fighting skills and subtle tactics were much admired; but a generally accepted code of conduct kept casualties and damage to a minimum. Tribal leaders were also expected to lead their men, even if they were so old that they had to be carried on a litter, while women often took part, beating drums and encouraging their menfolk.
The warrior ethic was dominated by single combats of mubarizun champions between the ranks of opposing armies. Despite the existence of superb (though very expensive) Arabian horses, infantry dominated Arab warfare in the early 7th century. The volume of weaponry available differed according to region and although swords seem to have been plentiful, armours and helmets were, like horses, relatively rare. Weapons were distributed by merchants, or could be sold as booty at one of many annual fairs which were a feature of Arabia. Otherwise a powerful tribal family would gather an arsenal as tribute and might in turn lend it to allies in time of need.
In 622 Muhammad escaped from Mecca to Yathrib where he had been invited to govern the town. Most of his Meccan supporters, the first Muslims, also fled to Yathrib, which thus became the world’s first ‘Muslim state’. Henceforth the town was known as Medina (the city) and the year 622 became Year One of the Muslim calendar (1 AH). Less than two years later constant threats from the still pagan Quraysh leaders of Mecca led to war, and the battle of Badr (January 624) was Islam’s first victory. This was the start of Islamic military history.
Facts about the first Muslim army are shrouded in pious legend, yet traditional accounts suggest that the Prophet enforced a new discipline on his followers, dividing men into units according to tribal origin and separating foot soldiers from those owning horses. Strict rules were also introduced for the distribution of booty, with all horsemen getting an equal share and all foot soldiers getting an equal but lesser proportion. As Islam won more converts, this first Muslim army came to include a number of mawali or non-Arabs adopted as ‘clients’ by Arab tribes.
Early Islamic writers provide considerable information about the flags used in those first heroic years. The Prophet’s own small white flag or alam was nick-named ‘The Young Eagle’. He also had a larger black raya banner which was said to be made from his wife Aisha’s head-cloth. At Badr the leader of one Muslim unit was identified by a yellow turban and yellow banner; while before the expedition to Tabugq (630) Muhammad ordered each unit leader to have a distinctive banner behind which his men could rally.
Each man had to equip himself, so booty was very important. Tribute from peoples who accepted Muhammad’s authority often included gifts of weaponry, the Persian governor of Yemen sending the Prophet many swords. The Prophet also sent non-military booty to be sold in Syria in exchange for various arms. Helmets were rarely mentioned, though one Muslim warrier had to wrap his head in cloth because no helmet could be found large enough to fit him. Armour may have been slightly more common, the Muslim force which eventually captured Mecca in 630 being called the ‘dark army’ because it wore so much armour.
The tactics used by these first Muslim armies were typical of the Arabian tradition. The holding or seizure of water sources, as at the battle of Badr, was vital, and a junction of caravan routes could be a good place to spring an ambush—as again at Badr. Vast areas of volcanic boulders known as the harrah could prove a worse obstacle to men and animals than the jagged mountains of western Arabia, forcing an attacker to approach down a predictable route.
Almost all armies had fewer camels than men, though this situation got better after several bedouin tribes adopted Islam. An increased emphasis on archery in the Prophet’s small but now disciplined Muslim Arab army could be reflected in a saying traditionally attributed to Muhammad in which he urged the Muslims to ‘Use the spear and the Arab bow for with them was your Prophet victorious.’ Many skirmishes and battles certainly started with archery exchanges, one detailed description stating that a man emptied his quiver on the ground and knelt to shoot. At the battle of Uhud Muhammad stationed his archers ona flanking hill to stop the pagan Mecca cavalry sweeping round the Muslim rear. On this occasion the
Meccans managed to charge home, overrunning the archers, while the Meccan infantry attacked the Muslims’ front rank of mail-clad warriors. At Uhud the Prophet’s daughter Fatima tended the wounded behind the ranks and in this, as in so many things, she became an idealized role model for Muslim women.
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