Download PDF | (Crusades - Subsidia 4) Helen J. Nicholson - On the Margins of Crusading. The Military Orders, the Papacy and the Christian World-Routledge (2016).
224 Pages
Notes on Contributors
Elena Bellomo is currently collaborating with the University of Genoa (Italy) and her research has been funded by the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche. Her publications on medieval Genoa, the First Crusade and the Templars include A servizio di Dio e del Santo Sepolcro: Caffaro e l’Oriente latino (2003) and The Templar Order in North-West Italy: 1142–c.1330 (2008).
David Bryson is a Fellow of the School of Historical Studies at the University of Melbourne (Australia). He has published numerous articles on the Templars and Hospitallers in south-western France, including “The Hospitaller and Templar houses of Périgord” and “Murder in the Preceptory?,” in The Military Orders, vols 3 and 4 (2008). Christer Carlsson is an archaeologist who obtained his PhD from the University of Southern Denmark in February 2010. He has published on historical and archaeological approaches to the military religious orders in medieval Scandinavia. He is currently working with research excavations and is also working as Assistant Field Officer in an archaeological consultancy company.
Peter Edbury is Professor of Medieval History and director of the Centre of the Crusades at Cardiff University, Wales (UK). He has written extensively on the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem and Lusignan Cyprus. His publications include The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades, 1191–1374 (1991) and the edition of John of Ibelin’s Le Livre des assises (2003). He is currently re-editing the William of Tyre continuations. Anne Gilmour-Bryson is a Principal Fellow at the University of Melbourne (Australia) and has also taught at Trinity Western University, British Columbia (Canada). Her publications on the Templar trial include The Trial of the Templars in the Papal State and the Abruzzi (1982) and The Trial of the Templars on Cyprus: A Complete English Edition (1998).
Michael Heslop is an Honorary Research Associate in Byzantine Studies at the Hellenic Institute, Royal Holloway. His recent research focuses on the Hospitaller Defensive Systems in the Dodecanese and related subjects – several articles have been published on this subject. He is the co-editor of Byzantium and Venice, 1204– 1453. Collected Studies of Julian Chrysostomides published by Ashgate in April, 2011. Current projects include “The Countryside of Rhodes: 1306–1421” with Julian Chrysostomides, Anthony Luttrell and Gregory O’Malley. Rafaël Hyacinthe studied the Order of St Lazarus from the Middle Ages to the modern period for his PhD at the Sorbonne. He has published on medieval assistance in South Italy and the cult of St Lazarus, including L’ordre de SaintLazare de Jérusalem au moyen âge (2003). He is now in charge of the Hospitaller archives in the Archives départementales de l’Hérault, Montpellier. Anthony Luttrell has studied at Oxford, Madrid, Rome and Pisa, taught at Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania, Edinburgh, Malta and Padua, and served as Assistant Director and Librarian of the British School at Rome. He works and publishes extensively on the Hospitallers of Rhodes, on medieval Malta, on the English in the Levant and on various archaeological projects.
Helen J. Nicholson is Reader in History at Cardiff University, Wales (UK), and publishes on the Military Orders, crusades, and various related subjects. Her books include Love, War and the Grail: Templars, Hospitallers and Teutonic Knights in Medieval Epic and Romance, 1150–1500 (2001), and The Proceedings against the Templars in the British Isles (2011). Jean-Marc Roger, palaeographical archivist, has published many studies on the Hospital of St John, the Templars, and other aspects of French ecclesiastical history during the late middle ages, including Le prieuré de Champagne des “chevaliers de Rhodes” (1317–1522) (doctoral thesis, 2001) and Nouveaux regards sur des monuments des Hospitaliers à Rhodes (2007, 2010).
Sebastián Salvadó is currently a post-doctoral researcher at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (Trondheim). His current project explores the music and texts of saints’ offices (historiae) as vehicles of political ideology within the context of medieval Arago-Catalonia. He recently completed his PhD at Stanford University (2011) with the dissertation “The Liturgy of the Holy Sepulchre and the Templar Rite: Edition and Analysis of the Jerusalem Ordinal (Rome, Bib. Ap. Vat., Barb. Lat. 659) with a Comparative Study of the Acre Breviary (Paris, Bib. Nat., Ms. Lat. 10478).
Preface
This volume contains the papers presented at the seventh conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East at Avignon, France, 28–31 August 2008, which did not deal with the conference subject “the papacy and the crusades” but instead discussed various aspects of a related subject, the military orders and the papacy. The papers explore some important and hitherto under-researched aspects of the history of the military orders, both in the orders’ relations with the papacy and in other aspects of their work throughout Europe and the Levant. For the benefit of researchers in the field it seemed convenient to publish them together in a separate volume in the series Crusades subsidia, alongside the main volume of papers from the Avignon conference. In this way, a collection of valuable pieces of specialised research will be made available to a wider audience. Two additional papers on related themes have been included from the “Military Orders: Politics and Power” conference at Cardiff in 2009. The editor is very grateful to Peter Edbury and Theresa Vann, who formed the editorial committee, and to Nigel Nicholson, who revised the maps for Chapters 2 and 5, drew the maps for Chapter 8 and produced the index. She is also very grateful to those at Ashgate Publishing who assisted with the production of this volume and to Ashgate’s anonymous reader for his/her valuable comments.
Introduction Helen J. Nicholson
The articles in this volume consider a variety of aspects of the history of the military religious orders, primarily the Orders of the Hospital of St John and the Temple, but also the Orders of Mountjoy and of St Lazarus. Six of the papers deal with the trial of the Templars and its aftermath, draw on evidence from the trial or reflect on the trial (Chapters 3–8), two consider archaeological evidence for the Hospitallers’ houses (Chapters 9 and 10), one considers an early indulgence offered to patrons of the Hospital (Chapter 1), and two consider largely overlooked smaller military orders, showing how their development was shaped by their patrons’ expectations (Chapters 2 and 11). None of these papers deal directly with the crusades – hence the title of this volume – but together they show the military religious orders working in various ways, often indirectly, in support of crusading and the defence of Christians and Christendom in the East.
Anthony Luttrell’s article considers an indulgence offered in around 1100–1103 by Pope Paschal II and Gerald, “servus” of the Hospital of Jerusalem, to those who offered help to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and to the Hospital. In the author’s words, this appears to be an early instance of such indulgences “being written down as a document in order to assist collectors in raising funds” and is significant in being produced a very short period after the first crusade’s capture of Jerusalem, at a time when the Hospital was not yet independent of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. It is important evidence for the Hospital’s early years and development, and particularly for the role of Gerald, credited with being the founder of the Hospital. Elena Bellomo then considers houses of the military Order of Montjoy in Italy. Founded to provide military aid to the Latin Christians in the Latin East, the main base of the Order of Mountjoy was in the Iberian Peninsula, and it never contributed to the military effort in the East; in fact, it does not even seem to have fought Islam in the Iberian Peninsula. Yet – thanks to the interests of the house of Montferrat in the kingdom of Jerusalem – the Order received property in Piedmont from Marquis William V of Montferrat. Bellomo suggests that William V hoped to use his donations to this military order to consolidate his control of local routes.
Other donations to the Order in Piedmont were on the routes to Spain or the Holy Land. In addition, the houses in north-west Italy were directly involved in hospitaller activities, unlike the houses of Mountjoy in Spain. Bellomo argues that patrons saw the Order of Mountjoy as having a Mediterranean-wide vocation and hoped to exploit this. Yet, as the Order failed to recruit members, in the thirteenth century its houses in north-western Italy were taken over by other religious orders. Sebastián Salvadó draws on the Templar regulations, and “surviving documentation on the Templars in Arago-Catalonia”, including the inventories taken at the time of the Templars’ arrests, to reconstruct their liturgy and religious devotion. The Templars’ liturgy has been discussed by Cristina Dondi, but Salvadó shows that much evidence remains to be investigated. He argues that, despite the fact that the majority of the Templars did not understand Latin, the Templars did interact with their rites, showing their piety visually in their chapel furnishings. He argues that their expressions of devotion were similar to those practised by the laity, as in a noble’s private chapel. His investigation indicates the potential of the surviving evidence to reveal the devotional lives of the military orders and the liturgies which they practised. Peter Edbury discusses the depiction of a famous episode, the Battle of the Spring of the Cresson (1 May 1187), in which the forces of the Hospitallers and Templars were destroyed by a Muslim army. He shows how the various versions of the event differ in the extent to which they assign blame for the disaster to Gerard of Ridefort, master of the Templars. The earliest version discussed here was compiled in the 1230s or earlier and presents a relatively objective account, but interpolations composed in the Latin East in the late 1230s or 1240s clearly blamed Gerard.
A manuscript copied in 1295 blackens Gerard’s reputation further. Edbury suggests that “the fact that it is found in a manuscript copied just twelve years before the arrest of the Templars” could be “evidence that, in some circles at least, there were people who were eager to believe ill of the Order”. The texts in question are included in appendices to this chapter. The antecedents to the Templars’ trial are considered further in the next chapter. David Bryson traces the travels of Pope Clement V from May 1304, when (as Bertrand de Got, archbishop of Bordeaux) he set out on his pastoral visits of the dioceses of Agen, Périgueux and Poitiers. Over five years to 1309, he visited various places which would play an important role during the trial of the Templars, 1307– 12. The role of Pope Clement V in the Templars’ trial is a contentious question among historians of the military orders. Bryson sets some of the issues into their geographical context, showing that Clement had many opportunities to discuss “the Templars’ affair” before the trial actually began, that he consistently avoided entering territory which was under the direct control of the king of France, and that the English regarded him as an ally. He argues that Clement could have remained in the south-west of France, an area he knew and where “he was most comfortable”, but he chose to champion the crusade, attempt to reform the Hospital and Temple and to resist King Philip IV’s influence.
Finally, by moving to Avignon, Clement put his court outside the influence of the kings of France and England. Anne Gilmour-Bryson moves on to consider the role of Pope Clement V during the trial of the Templars, and presents an in-depth discussion of the contents of the bull Vox in excelso, by which Clement dissolved the Order in 1312. She argues that Clement considered the Templars’ affair very seriously and that he did not wish to dissolve the Order, nor did he find the Order or its members guilty as charged. Yet he was effectively compelled to dissolve the Order, to prevent King Philip IV of France bringing charges of heresy against Pope Boniface VIII. Helen Nicholson moves the discussion of the trial from a focus on the papacy to the proceedings themselves, using testimonies given during the trial of the Templars in Britain and Ireland to explore what the people of these islands actually knew about the Holy Land during the early years of the fourteenth century. Having discussed the problems of using such testimony evidence, she argues that there was a certain level of travel from Ireland to the eastern Mediterranean, and that some of those who spoke against the Templars did have a personal interest in the situation in the Middle East.
That said, the evidence which is recorded reflects the expectations of the inquisitors and the witnesses’ own concerns rather than giving accurate information about the Templars or the crusade in the East. Jean-Marc Roger’s article returns to the papacy and discusses the aftermath of the Templars’ trial, exploring how Pope John XXII reformed the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem after the Order had obtained the Templars’ properties, and in particular how he reorganised the priories of Saint-Gilles and of France. Drawing on a vast range of evidence, much of which has not been published, he shows how “En prenant à bras le corps l’Hôpital, Jean XXII le sauva”. Without the efforts of Pope John XXII, he argues, the Hospital would not have survived to hold Rhodes for a further two centuries.
The next two articles consider the work of the Hospitallers at the extremes of Latin Christendom in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries: at Rhodes on the frontier with the Turks, and in Sweden, far from the Latin Christian frontier. Michael Heslop’s article considers, with the help of maps and photographs, the geographical relationship of the Hospitallers’ castles in the Dodecanese to each other. He explores how the brothers stationed in each castle would have been able to communicate with each other, and ultimately with their headquarters on Rhodes, by means of fire or mirror-signals. Christer Carlsson reports on archaeological excavations at a Hospitaller commandery in Sweden – one of the Order’s more distant commanderies from the Holy Land – and considers its role in its local context. The commandery church is very large for such a small commandery, and Carlsson discusses the possibility that the church also functioned as the local parish church. He argues that as the church was built next to a local route used by pilgrims, there is also the possibility that the commandery acted as a pilgrim hospice.
Finally, Rafaël Hyacinthe considers the development of the Order of St Lazarus after the loss of the Holy Land in 1291 from an internationally based order focused on military support for the Holy Land to separate “national” Orders of St Lazarus. He argues that with the end of crusading to the Holy Land, the Order’s houses in western Europe had to find new roles, providing various spiritual and Hospitaller services for their patrons. With the connivance of the papacy, which recognised an independent master of England in 1372 and an independent master in Capua in 1443, the former Order became effectively a series of separate small national orders. In 1498 Pope Innocent VIII amalgamated the Order of St Lazarus with the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem, but this was never put into effect. Following the Protestant Reformation, two of these small national orders – in Italy and France – were reformed with papal approval into secular knightly orders, while others – in England and Germany – were dissolved. Hyacinthe argues that the Order survived, albeit in a fragmented form, because its members were ready to adapt quickly to local needs and to provide what those in power and authority required: whether better hospital care, or a prestigious military force.
Only their semi-legendary history remained as a memory of their international origins in the Holy Land. Overall, these articles widen and enrich our insight into the operations and everyday life of the military religious orders in the medieval period. We see their geographical range: a Spanish military order is shown operating in Italy, while the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem is responsible for a parish church in rural Sweden. We see their varied activities: near the beginning of their history the Hospitallers offer written records of indulgences as part of their alms-raising activities; two centuries later, they are guarding fortresses on the islands of the Eastern Mediterranean. We see the Templars’ spiritual life, and their contemporaries’ depictions of them. We also see the papacy acting to administer, control or judge these religious orders. Throughout, they operate as part of medieval Catholic Christendom, sometimes controversial but always active in their vocation. Even if much of what they did was on the margins of crusading, crusading could not have operated without their support. As crusading itself changed and adapted in the early modern period, so the surviving military-religious orders, such as the Order of St Lazarus, also changed to meet new expectations and political needs.
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